Cementitious, Pozzolanic And Filler Materials For DSM Binders

Deep Soil Mix (DSM) is a proven method of ground improvement for deeper underlying soft soil layers which are otherwise impractical to reach using conventional shallow soil stabilization and replacement methods. The predominant binder materials used are Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and Lime (CaO) but negative effects to the environment from manufacture and increasing construction cost have prompted research into alternative materials. This review identifies pozzolans and filler materials as possible supplements or partial substitutes for better results. The DSM method and binder reaction processes during treated soil strength development are outlined and effectiveness of different pozzolans (Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag, Rice Husk Ash, Kaolin, and Metakaolin) and filler materials (e.g. fine sand) discussed together with their influence factors. With many pozzolans, a clear optimum dosage is observed where improved strength peaks. Aluminosilicate pozzolans perform better over siliceous pozzolans with Metakaolin (MK) identified as the most effective pozzolan for enhancing compressive strength. Up to date research results on these materials are compiled. MK blended cements are readily available and can be readily applied for initial field tests. Treated soil strength may be regulated with addition of filler materials to further reduce reliance on cement.


Introduction
Construction in soft soil conditions require either wide footprint or deep foundations to support the overlying structure without soil shear failure or excessive settlement. Highly developed areas for infrastructure, residential, commercial and industry often encounter soft soil conditions (peat / clay / silt in river deltas, flood plains and alluvial plains etc.).
A viable alternative engineering solution is through ground improvement. The properties of the underlying soil are improved to satisfactorily support the imposed bearing pressure from the structure above. The soil properties can be enhanced by 1) full or partial replacement with stronger materialse.g. geo-textiles, fibrous materials, etc.; 2) adding binder materials that will react with the soil to strengthen ite.g. soil stabilization, soil reinforcement, etc.; or 3) modifying the existing consistency of the soile.g. pre-loading, electro-kinetic stabilization, etc.
The Deep Soil Mix (DSM) method applies soil stabilization principles, which comprises the addition and mixing of binder materials with the soil as stabilizing agents and other filler materials in the form of columns into the soil stratum. Presently, the pre-dominant binder materials utilized are cement and lime. These are classified as traditional cementitious / hydraulic binder materials.

Required Properties For DSM
For DSM, the binders would seek to improve the following treated soil properties:  Plasticity -Atterberg limits which determines the critical stages of fine-grained soil state and behaviour;  Dynamic -Shear Modulus (G) and Damping Ratio (D) which affects resistance to liquefaction and soil structure interaction (SSI) effects when dynamic loading conditions occur.
The effectiveness of the binder reaction with soil is significantly influenced by:  Binder type and insertion methods -WDSM in jetted slurry form / DDSM by compressed air;  Mixing methodsbinder mix consistency with the soil;  Binder dosage applied (higher dosage up to an optimum level lead to greater strength);  Type and content of reactive pozzolanic material in soili.e. silica / aluminate material in the soil. High organic matter content in soils like peat can retard cementitious reaction process. Pozzolanic reactions will not initiate or be effective if there are insufficient reactive silica or aluminates;  Soil temperature & pHhigher temperature increases rate of reaction. High acidity inhibits reaction rate;  Allowable curing periodstrength increases with curing time;  Specific surface of binder particle -A higher specific surface causes faster reaction to take place (where smaller particles have a higher specific surface). 1 shall be reported in a future review article

Reaction Mechanism
Traditional cementitious binder materials, OPC, lime or a combined mixture of both materials are still the most commonly used in DSM. Lime, in the form of calcium oxide (CaO), is derived from crushing and heating limestone (CaCO3) at over 1000 C o . When added to soil, CaO undergoes a calcareous reaction with the water content in soil to form slaked lime or hydrated lime, otherwise known as calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) [9]. Combining with water in soil results in hydration which reduces the water content in the soil which leads to better soil stability. Strength development is derived from secondary reactions between any pozzolanic materials mixed with lime or as particles in the soil. These secondary pozzolanic reactions form C-S-H, C-A-H and C-A-S-H which are the main contributing components to strength gain. Other benefits of lime binders come from the heat release from exothermic CaO / H2O reaction of CaO and increase in pH due to Ca (OH)2 formed which improves the pozzolanic reaction rate. Cement (OPC) reacts hydraulically with water to form a paste which binds the soil and other binder particles together into a hardened mass. Strength development comes from formation of C-S-H and C-A-H due to reaction of C3S, C2S and C3A components of cement with water.

Lime Binders
Lime as a binder in stabilization has been used in deep soil mixed columns for loose clays, silts and peat soils since the 1970s in Scandinavia. Undrained shear strengths for stabilized clay under favorable conditions of 10 to 50 times original soil strength have been recorded after one year [10,11]. Studies were also conducted on the engineering characteristics of lime stabilized organic soils [12] and design principles for stabilization using lime columns have been established [10]. Lime neutralizes the acidity of organic matter in soils and improves soil plasticity and shear strength. However, strength development in lime columns is still susceptible to several factors:  Soil temperaturelower temperatures slows the reaction considerably;  Low pH in soil retards reaction and leads to long-term deterioration of the soil-lime column;  Sulphate contenthigh soil sulphate content interferes with normal pozzolanic reactions between lime and any pozzolanic particles in the soil. This is similar to cementitious hydraulic reactions when low-density ettringite forms in the presence of sulphate ions leading to expansion and cracking in the brittle soil-lime soil mix [13].

Cement Binders
Cement has been the most researched and widely utilized binder material for deep soil mixing. Deep cement columns in Japan have typically achieved over 1 MPa UCS by wet method installation and typically, 500 kPa by dry method installation methods [14]. Cement offers greater soil mechanical improvement (shear strength and compressibility) over lime [9,15]. The design methodology for combined lime/cement and cement columns have been developed for soft clays [16,17].
For peat soil, the application of deep soil mix columns was investigated with a series of simple scale models in the field [18][19][20]. Huat et al. [21] conducted a series of tests on various proportions of cement and lime binders on peat soil, showing increasing strength improvement in the order of 2 to 3 times as binder % increases. The implementation of deep mixed methods cement columns in peat soils was also studied in the lab by a series of Rowe cell tests [22]. In soft organic soils (e.g. peat), the organic matter in the soil inhibited cementitious reaction [23]. Research by Hebib and Farrell [24] supported the finding that the combination of high organic content, lack of solid and pozzolanic particles, acidic media (from humic acid) and high water: solids ratio all seek to impede efficient hydration of cement in peat soils.
Investigation of the influence of cement binder dosage [25,26] showed an increase in cement ratio leads to improved compressibility characteristics of soft clay and peat soil.
Longer curing periods also lead to greater strength development in cement-treated soil. Logarithmic models were widely used to predict strength gain over time [4,27]. A shortcoming of a logarithmic model was that it implied indefinite strength increase with time. Logically, cement hydration should cease when reaction products are consumed. This led to an improved hyperbolic function model on strength development over time [28,29]. Pozzolans, are defined as "siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials which in themselves possess little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious properties" [30]. The chemical reaction between these siliceous and/or siliceous-alumina rich components, calcium hydroxide and water, is called the pozzolanic reaction. Also known as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM), pozzolans can act as a beneficial additive to cement with various performance enhancing effects for soil stabilization. Pozzolans can be categorized as:  Natural Pozzolanseither of volcanic (unaltered pyroclastic materials e.g. vitreous pumices / ashes or altered pyroclastic materials like zeolitized tuffs etc.) or sedimentary origin (e.g. chemical sediments e.g. diatomaceous earth or detrital sediments e.g. clays, shales etc.);  Artificial Pozzolanse.g. Blast Furnace slag (GGBS), Fly Ash (FA), Silica Fume (SF) and burned organic matter residue with significant siliceous/aluminous materialse.g. Rice Husk Ash (RHA).
Cementitious hydration, as mentioned earlier, not only produces Calcium Silica Hydrate (C-S-H) but also, as a byproduct, Ca (OH)2 (up to 25% of hydrated Portland cement). The dissolved SiO2 (combined with water to form silicic acid ,H4SiO4) and Al2O3 in pozzolans react with dissolved Ca 2+ and (OH)ions from the Ca(OH)2 to produce both C-S-H and Calcium Aluminate Hydrate C-A-H [31].
A similar mechanism that may reside for pozzolans in soils occurs when lime / cement is added. The derived Ca(OH)2 is transported via water within the soil to combine with aluminate and/or silicate clay minerals in the soil [32]. However, enough free calcium ions and a pH level above 12 is needed (to maintain solubility of silicon and aluminium ions) to initiate and maintain the pozzolanic reaction [33]. This can be provided from Ca (OH)2 that is derived from addition of either lime or cement.
Field test results from DSM samples [4,34] and laboratory results from cement-treated soil [27] show significant long-term strength gain (up to 2.1 strength increase over 28 day strengths) well beyond the short term cement hydration phase [35]. This long term strength gain has been attributed to secondary pozzolanic reactions taking place in the soil as a result of the right conditions from cement hydratione.g. high pH, presence of Ca 2+ ions / (OH)ions and pozzolanic materials in the soil [36,37].
Pozzolanic reactions occur over longer timescales (months to years) [9,31]. Correia et al. [38] proposed a simplified method to predict the UCS at 28 days for cement and pozzolanic stabilized clays based on soil liquidity index, specific binder type and content. The effectiveness of pozzolans (reaction and strength) is related to:  Reactivity with lime (CaO) -The reactivity of mineral admixtures reactivity of the pozzolanic materials can be determined by the Chapelle (which determines the rate of lime (CaO) consumption) or similar tests [39];  The proportions of the pozzolan phase state (crystalline / vitreous or amorphous) which affects strength [9,40] higher amorphousness leads to greater reactivity. Reactivity-based on lime consumption per mass of the amorphous phase of pozzolans using Reitveld refinement method of XRD analysis interpretation allows consideration of vitreous or amorphous phase in the pozzolanic material and more accurate determination of the effectiveness of a pozzolan [41].
 The particle size and associated specific surface of the pozzolan which affects reactivity [40] the higher the specific surface, the greater the reactivity.

Fly Ash (FA)
Fly Ash (also known as "pulverized fuel ash", PFA or FA) is residue composed of pulverized coal, discharged from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases in coal-fired power plants. There are two classes of fly ash: Class F FA requires an activator or cementing agent (as it contains less lime (CaO) content) mixed with water. It can form a geopolymer by combining with sodium silicate/ sodium hydroxide [59]. When utilized to stabilize soft organic soils, the addition of fly ash increases soil resilient modulus (Mr) from zero Mr without a binder to 10-100 MPa depending on % of binder used and improves unconfined compressive strength (UCS) from original untreated at 15 kPa to > 100 kPa with fly ash [60]. Similarly, for tropical peat soils, the mixing of Pond Ash (PA) binder also increases UCS. 20% PA dosage lead to doubling UCS of the original peat soil [61,62].
Significant properties enhancements were reported for fly ash binders of organic (36.9% organic content) soil from Khulna, Bangladesh, notably in the liquid (LL) and plastic limits (PL) as well as dry density leading to increased UCS [63]. Two types of Fly Ash -Class C and Class F (ASTM C 618-2017a), were tested whereby, Class C fly ash achieved noticeable higher strength gains over Class F type. Stabilized soil pH values also increased because of binder mixing. • Presence of any type of small particle (known as particle packing or micro filling) will improve the strength in the presence of cement

Ground Granulated Blast Slag (GGBS) or Slag
Slag, alternately known as Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS or GGBFS) is formed as a by-product from iron production by quenching molten iron slag from a blast furnace to produce a glassy, granular material that is dried and ground into a fine powder. Chemical composition varies with the composition of raw materials in iron production and is mainly composed of -CaO [typically 30-50%]; SiO2 [from 28-38%]; Al2O3 [8-24%] and MgO [between 1-18%]. Properties of GGBS when blended with cement and in soil stabilization [64] that are useful in DSM are:  Lower early temperature risewhich reduces the risk of thermal cracking for mass pours;  Reduced soil plasticity (lower PI) and quc increase in clays;  Reduced risk of alkali-silica reaction (ASR)a swelling reaction over time in concrete between highly alkaline cement paste and reactive non-crystalline (amorphous) silica in aggregates;  Greater resistance to sulphate attacks and to chloride infiltration in cement-GGBS mix; GGBS is considered a latent hydraulic material and requires activation (by hydraulic binder material like cement or lime or alternatively by using alkalis and sulphates) before it can react with water in the soil [9]. The reactivity of the GGBS also depends on its phase state which results from the rate of cooling after leaving the furnace. Rapid cooling leads to an amorphous, highly reactive slag while slow cooling would lead to crystalline inert slag, which is unsuitable as an additive for stabilization in deep soil mixing [9].
Studies on clay & silt in Sweden showed slower strength development with combinations of slag-cement-slag ratio binder mixes compared to cement alone [11]. This is due to the slower reaction of GGBS, which has a lower CaO/SiO2 ratio to cement. Although better reaction product quantities from GGBS-lime mix vs GGBS-cement mix were reported, they were still inferior to lime-cement mix or lime binder in clay [11]. Comparison between cement and GGBS as binders to expansive clays showed that 10% GGBS (optimum) (779 kPa) achieved an equivalent 28 day UCS to 5% cement content (764 kPa) [48].
For peat soil, research results showed lower compressive strength at 7 days curing for 75% OPC:25% GGBS binder mix compared to 100% OPC binder mix with 25% silica sand [67]. Axelsson et al. [68] concluded that cement: GGBS binder mix provided better results for compressive strength than for cement binder alone in peat.

Silica Fume (SF)
Silica Fume (SF) is a pozzolanic by-product material derived from the production of silicon metal/ferro silicon alloys in smelters using electric arc furnacese.g. aluminium and steel production, computer chip fabrication plants, silicone production etc. SF typically consists of spherical particles with an average particle diameter of 150 nm and is typically 85-97 % SiO2 with less than 1% CaO.
Because of its chemical composition and fineness, SF only enhances the properties of concrete and is not meant as a replacement material for Portland cement such as Fly Ash or GGBS. The major improvement effect on fresh concrete is a more cohesive slurry mix leading to:  Improved bond strength; little or no bleeding in the concrete;  Reduced permeability which improves durability and resistance to chloride and sulphate attack;  Enhanced UCS and E for the treated soil.
The small particle size of SF also leads to greater surface area and therefore allows the SiO 2 to react more readily with Ca(OH)2 in the pozzolanic reaction to produce C-S-H, leading to improved strength properties.
Because it is not utilized as a replacement for cement, SF can only be considered as a minor additive to cement in soil stabilization. Typical SF content may range between 10 to 75 kg/m 3 or 4 -15% of cement content by weight.
Research performed on cement with SF (5,10% by weight cement) on peat soil showed that the addition of SF has contributed to settlement reduction and increased bearing capacity [69,70]. Optimum dosage up to 5% cement content in soil was achieved with 10% SF, thereafter, 5% SF by cement weight was more effective.

Rice Husk Ash (RHA)
Rice Husk Ash (RHA) is formed by burning, at a specific temperature range, rice hulls / husk which are separated from rice grains as a by-product in rice milling. About 10P 8 P tons of rice husk are generated annually in the world [71]. The ash residue from the combustion is a potential source of non-crystalline / amorphous reactive silica (of up to 95%) [72]. Typical composition of RHA (depending on specific combustion conditions) can be 88 [39] -99 % SiO2 [73]. RHA has the highest specific surface area amongst the pozzolanic materials covered in this review [39].
Again, a small particle size leads to greater surface area and therefore allows improved reaction by SiO2 with Ca (OH)R 2 to produce strength enhancing C-S-H.
The type of RHA used is importantthe amorphous form of SiO2 has higher pozzolanic reactivity compared to the crystalline form of SiO2 [74]. The composition of SiO2 is dependent on the combustion process which leads to the structural transformation of the SiO2 in the ash residue. High-temperature combustion produces more crystalline forms of SiO2 as opposed to the low temperature combustion process. This can be differentiated through colourhigh temperature ash (>900 P o P C) produces fully crystalline silica and is white / pink in colour whereas lower temperature ash (500-700 P o P C) is darker (grey to black) with more amorphous silica that is more reactive [75]. This is counteracted by less SiO2 derived from lower furnace temperature furnaces vs higher furnace temperature. RHA with lower carbon content produces higher pozzolanic activity [76].
Basha et al. [77] tested the addition of RHA with cement binder on residual granite soil. Like SF, RHA cannot be utilized as a full replacement for cement but as a supplement to the cement to achieve multiplier effects on enhancing soil properties. This can be seen when RHA only treated soil encountered decreased CBR values with increasing % RHA vs increasing CBR with an increase in % cement.
RHA does not appear to improve all types of soils. Alhassan [71] utilized RHA as binder material sans cement for tests on ferruginous tropical soils and recorded insignificant bearing capacity improvement over original soil.
Research on clayey silt showed a 63% increase in compressive strength after 7 days curing over original soil with an optimum 15% by soil weight [78]. Choobbasti et al. [79] investigated the influence of RHA as an additive binder to slaked lime for silty clay soils and proposed an optimum mix of 4% lime and 5% RHA to maximize c & φ properties in the soil. Roy [80] recommended optimizing at 6% cement and 10% RHA for clay soils. Research by Rahman et al. [81] on the addition of RHA binder to silty sand, showed shear strength improving as RHA % increases.

Kaolin (K)
Kaolin (K), also known as china clay is a naturally occurring soft white clay of which the mineral kaolinite is obtained from. The chemical formula for Kaolinite is 2 2 5 ( ). Kaolinite is one of the most common minerals; it is mined in various countries throughout the world [82].
Chemical composition of Kaolin powder consists of 57.6% SiO2 | 37.8% Al2O3 | 0.9% Fe2O3 | 0.6% MgO being the main constituents [42]. Being both a siliceous and aluminous material, Kaolin is a partial pozzolanic additive for cement reacting to form C-S-H and C-A-H products [83].
Wong et al. [84] proposed kaolin mixed with lime / cement for use as partial replacement and pozzolanic additive in stabilized peat columns. Additionally, kaolin and silica sand (as a filler) on peat soils demonstrated combined action of hydrolysis of the cement, the pozzolanic reaction of kaolin, and the filler effect of well-graded silica sand in the soil.
Considered to have twice the reactivity of most other pozzolans, metakaolin is a valuable admixture for concrete/cement applications. When replacing Portland cement with 8-20% (by weight) metakaolin produces a concrete mix which exhibits favorable engineering properties that includes: the filler effect, the acceleration of OPC hydration, and the pozzolanic reaction. The filler effect is immediate, while the effect of pozzolanic reaction occurs between 3 and 14 days. Kolovos et al. [56] investigated soil-crete mixtures modified with metakaolin. MK addition to binder mix improved UCS significantly over just cement binder in clay through a reduction in porosity and microcracking and formation of dense cement gel.

Fine Sand
Fine sand acts as an inert filler and does not contribute to cement hydration or pozzolanic reactions. However, it provides a structure for the binder particles to attach to and form a load bearing stabilized soil and also contributes to densification by filling the void spaces in the soil during stabilization [55]. Tests with increasing sand content in highly compressible soile.g. peat, has shown improved settlement characteristics [87]. Wong et al. [88] researched the effect of Kaolin (as Supplementary Cementitious Material) and Silica sand (as a filler) on peat soils, Klang, Selangor whereby:  An increase in silica sand (0 -596 kg/m 3 ) led to increased UCS (from 175 kPa to 460 kPa);  Threshold silica sand dosage of 460 kg/m 3 is suggested to achieve minimum UCS = 345 kPa;  Increases density and reduces the porosity of stabilized soil; However, the fine sand does not contribute to secondary pozzolanic reaction (with nano materials and cement) or geo-polymerization (with the right chemical additive), being non-crystalline (amorphous) silica.

Discussion
Adding pozzolan materials to lime / cement binder mix can be effective when treating soils with little or no pozzolanic particles since follow on strength development (which may account for another 50-100% of 28-day strength) beyond short term hydration is due to pozzolanic reactions [37]. However, pozzolans are ineffective by themselves and require Ca (OH)2 presence in aqueous solution to supply enough quantities of Ca 2+ and OHfor the pozzolanic reaction to take place. The Ca (OH)2 is usually provided by a cementitious binder.
From the compilation of research results for different pozzolan binders in Tables 5 and 6, there is a clear trend showing alumino silicate pozzolans producing greater compressive strength in combination with cementitious binders. The lower proportion of amorphous form of siliceous materials, which determines pozzolanic reactivity, also contributes to the disadvantage to alumino silicates.
Alumino silicate pozzolans exhibit higher initial rates of reaction over siliceous pozzolans due to Al2O3, which form C-A-S-H and C-A-H [86]. The greater specific surface area and smaller particle size of MK would lead to greater reaction rate over GGBS.
With pozzolans, there is an optimum dosage limit that applies, whereupon performance peaks. For example, the 10% optimum dosage by weight with MK has been observed in several researches [56,57,86] . This suggests a required concentration of Ca (OH)2 greater than what is provided from the cement hydration, that must be maintained in relation to the pozzolan in order to retain rate of pozzolanic reaction. The effect from more Ca (OH)2 in order to increase effectiveness of a higher pozzolan dosage limit by adding lime should be investigated further.
In terms of compressive strength improvement, the optimum dosage for some siliceous binder types (15 to 28% for RHA [54,77]) differ from aluminosilicate binders (5 to 10% replacement dosage for GGBS [48] and MK [56,57,86]). A comprehensive comparison of optimum dosage between the two groups of pozzolans when combined with cementitious binder for different soil types e.g. clay, silts, sands, organic soils etc. would be useful.
Frias and Cabrera [35] noted also that a higher water/binder (w/b) ratio may accelerate the completion of pozzolanic reaction for MK. Thus, the long term slow pozzolanic reaction beyond typical 28-day cement binder hydration may be accelerated with a combination of w/b ratio and use of MK blended-cement upon further investigation. It is noted that w/b ratios can only be controlled with the WDSM method.
The actual beneficial effect of filler materials has been sparsely researched. A good starting point would be applying research performed on effect of aggregate in concrete as a starting point to how filler materials can provide solid particles for binder paste to adhere to. Filler materials mixed with binders would be feasible if injected as a slurry in WDSM method for organic and very soft soils. They can act as economic inert substitutes when lower strengths are only required.
Finally, the influence of binders on dynamic properties of treated soil in context of DSM is not well covered in literature. As compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and shear modulus of soil are co-related, comprehensive investigation should be carried out to determine the extent of beneficial influence by binder treated soil when laid in DSM columns.

Conclusions
This review paper explains the reaction mechanism and compiles research results to date of cementitious and pozzolanic binders as well as filler materials. The following conclusions are made: Cement is well established as the binder of choice in DSM ground improvement. Lime binders require further secondary reaction with any existing pozzolanic materials in the soil, hence it is not as effective in soils deficient in pozzolans. Strength development progresses, not to the same degree as for cement and take a longer time measured in weeks / months. With cement binders, increasing dosage leads to proportionate increase in treated soil strength gain.
With pozzolans, effectiveness depends on % and form of Si material (more reactive amorphous form vs. crystalline), binder particle surface area / fineness, pH level in the soil, presence of calcium (Ca) (since pozzolanic reactions are also calcium based like cement hydration), and enough quantity and distribution of the Si/Al/Ca components. Aluminosilicate pozzolans are more effective than siliceous pozzolans. MK is identified as the most effect pozzolan when combined with cement. For pozzolans, an optimum dosage limit applies where improvement effects peak (~10 % replacement of cementitious binder being reported).
Although not contributing to further hydration or pozzolanic reaction, filler materials such well-graded silica sand provide solid particles for the reacted binder particle to adhere to. This is applicable to soils with very high water and organic matter content such as peat [67,84,89].
Possible research opportunities to pursue have been identified. They include:  A stoichiometric approach expanding on earlier studies to determine proportions of different pozzolans when combined with cement / lime binders in different soil conditions. Optimum dosage for various pozzolans can then be established for different soils and validated with laboratory testing;  The effect of different filler materials and proportions to treated soil strength improvement;  Study into the effect on dynamic properties of binder treated soils;  The hydration and pozzolanic strength development of different clay mineral types can be tested. By determining the clay content and clay mineralogy of the soil, and therefore understand the pozzolanic content and reactivity, effectiveness with different clay types can be established;  Determine efficiency of the both hydration and pozzolanic reactions which can be derived by determining Ca (OH)2 content in treated soil at different curing periods. They can also be co-related with other parameters, notably, water/binder ratio (w/b), plasticity index (PI) and void ratio (e);  Testing and comparison between field and laboratory samples to measure the difference between in reaction effectiveness and efficiency due to mixing and installation;  Non pozzolanic materialse.g. reinforcement fibers, nanomaterials, and alkali activated materials and geopolymers.