The Role of Urban Structure in Enhancing the Sustainability of Cities: A Comparative Study
Vol. 11 No. 4 (2025): April
Research Articles
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Doi: 10.28991/CEJ-2025-011-04-015
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[1] Shan, C., Liu, Y., & Gu, X. (2025). Curbing Urban Sprawl: A Study of Three Typical American Cities from the Perspectives of the Built Environment and Socioeconomics. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 151(1), 05024044. doi:10.1061/jupddm.upeng-5316.
[2] Du, X., Zhou, J., & Xiao, C. (2024). Spatial effects and influencing factors of urban sustainable development: An analysis of urban agglomerations in China. Economic Analysis and Policy, 81, 556–575. doi:10.1016/j.eap.2023.12.022.
[3] Jedi, Z. A. J., & Al-Jawari, S. M. (2023). Analysing formal transformations in sustainable urban structures in Kufa City, Iraq. Environmental & Socio-Economic Studies, 11(2), 52–63. doi:10.2478/environ-2023-0011.
[4] Wang, D., Liang, Y. F., & Dou, W. (2024). How does urban industrial structure upgrading affect green productivity? The moderating role of smart city development. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 72, 133–149. doi:10.1016/j.strueco.2024.09.017.
[5] Al-Abayechi, Y. F., & Al-Khafaji, A. S. (2023). Forecasting the Impact of the Environmental and Energy Factor to Improve Urban Sustainability by Using (SEM). Civil Engineering Journal (Iran), 9(10), 2554–2567. doi:10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-10-013.
[6] Yin, H., Xiao, R., Fei, X., Zhang, Z., Gao, Z., Wan, Y., Tan, W., Jiang, X., Cao, W., & Guo, Y. (2023). Analyzing "economy-society-environment” sustainability from the perspective of urban spatial structure: A case study of the Yangtze River delta urban agglomeration. Sustainable Cities and Society, 96, 104691. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2023.104691.
[7] Zheng, S., Huang, Y., & Fu, Y. (2023). The effect of polycentric urban spatial structure on PM2.5: An empirical study of China. Sustainable Cities and Society, 98, 104806. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2023.104806.
[8] Gallotti, R., Sacco, P., & De Domenico, M. (2021). Complex Urban Systems: Challenges and Integrated Solutions for the Sustainability and Resilience of Cities. Complexity, 1782354. doi:10.1155/2021/1782354.
[9] Liu, K., Xue, Y., Chen, Z., Miao, Y., & Shi, J. (2022). Economic spatial structure of China's urban agglomerations: Regional differences, distribution dynamics, and convergence. Sustainable Cities and Society, 87, 104253. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2022.104253.
[10] Bertaud, A. (2004). The spatial organization of cities: Deliberate outcome or unforeseen consequence?. Working Paper 2004-01, Institute of Urban and Regional Development, University of California, Berkeley, United States.
[11] Bertaud, A. (2006). The spatial structures of Central and Eastern European cities. The Urban Mosaic of Post-Socialist Europe. Contributions to Economics. Physica-Verlag HD, Heidelberg, Germany. doi:10.1007/3-7908-1727-9_5.
[12] Zhou, H., & Gao, H. (2020). The impact of urban morphology on urban transportation mode: A case study of Tokyo. Case Studies on Transport Policy, 8(1), 197–205. doi:10.1016/j.cstp.2018.07.005.
[13] Liu, G. Y., Yang, Z. F., Su, M. R., & Chen, B. (2012). The structure, evolution and sustainability of urban socio-economic system. Ecological Informatics, 10, 2–9. doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2011.10.001.
[14] Borrego, C., Martins, H., Tchepel, O., Salmim, L., Monteiro, A., & Miranda, A. I. (2006). How urban structure can affect city sustainability from an air quality perspective. Environmental Modelling and Software, 21(4), 461–467. doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2004.07.009.
[15] EPA. (2024). Our Built and Natural Environments: A Technical Review of the Interactions Between Land Use, Transportation, and Environmental Quality. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, United States. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/our-built-and-natural-environments (accessed on March 2025).
[16] Padhiary, M., Roy, P., & Roy, D. (2024). The Future of Urban Connectivity. Sustainable Smart Cities and the Future of Urban Development, 33–66, IGI Global, Hershey, United States. doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-6740-7.ch002.
[17] Dadashpoor, H., & Yousefi, Z. (2018). Centralization or decentralization? A review on the effects of information and communication technology on urban spatial structure. Cities, 78, 194–205. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2018.02.013.
[18] Yin, Z., Li, W., Li, C., & Zheng, Y. (2025). The relationship between accessibility and land prices: A focus on accessibility to transit in the 15-min city. Travel Behaviour and Society, 38, 100914. doi:10.1016/j.tbs.2024.100914.
[19] Milakis, D., Barbopoulos, N., & Vlastos, T. (2025). The optimum density for the sustainable city: the case of Athens. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 84. doi:10.2495/SPD050031.
[20] Yu, B. (2021). Urban spatial structure and total-factor energy efficiency in Chinese provinces. Ecological Indicators, 126, 107662. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107662.
[21] Abozeid, A. S. M., & AboElatta, T. A. (2021). Polycentric vs monocentric urban structure contribution to national development. Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 68(1), 11. doi:10.1186/s44147-021-00011-1.
[22] Lemoy, R. (2024). Monocentric or polycentric city? An empirical perspective. arXiv preprint, arXiv:2403.07624. doi:10.48550/arXiv.240307624.
[23] CoreLogic. (2024). Population density: where is it the highest and what does it mean for housing trends. CoreLogic, Irvine, United States. Available online: https://www.corelogic.com.au/news-research/news/2024/population-density-where-is-it-the-highest-and-what-does-it-mean-for-housing-trends (accessed on March 2025).
[24] Victoria Walks. (2023). Walking and transport in Melbourne suburbs. Victoria Walks, Melbourne, Australia. Available online: https://www.victoriawalks.org.au/walking-suburbs/ (accessed on March 2025).
[25] State Government of Victoria. (2025). Property sales statistics. State Government of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia. Available online: https://www.land.vic.gov.au/valuations/resources-and-reports/property-sales-statistics (accessed on March 2025).
[26] State Government of Victoria. (2025). Plan Melbourne 2017–2050. State Government of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia Available online: https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/guides-and-resources/strategies-and-initiatives/plan-melbourne (accessed on March 2025).
[27] Jayasooriya, V. M., & Ng, A. W. M. (2013). Development of a framework for the valuation of EcoSystem Services of Green Infrastructure. Proceedings - 20th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, MODSIM 2013, 3155–3161. doi:10.36334/modsim.2013.l20.jayasooriya.
[28] Oyadeyi, O. A., & Oyadeyi, O. O. (2025). Towards inclusive and sustainable strategies in smart cities: A comparative analysis of Zurich, Oslo, and Copenhagen. Research in Globalization, 10, 100271. doi:10.1016/j.resglo.2025.100271.
[29] Silva, C. A. (2015). Urban sprawl and interstitial spaces: a conceptual definition for undeveloped areas and their morphological implications in planning View project Urban sprawl and interstitial spaces: a conceptual definition for undeveloped areas and their morphological implications in planning. Proceedings of the International Conference on Changing Cities II: Spatial, Design, Landscape & Socio-Economic Dimensions, 22-26 June, 201, Porto Heli, Greece.
[30] Ní¦ss-Schmidt, H. S., & Kilsdal, L. (2019). Housing market analysis of greater Copenhagen: housing shortage, urban development potentials and strategies Copenhagen Economics, Copenhagen, Denmark. Available online: https://copenhageneconomics.com/publication/housing-market-analysis-of-greater-copenhagen-housing-shortage-urban-development-potentials-and-strategies/ (accessed on March 2025). (In Danish).
[31] Reis, J. P. D. F. F. D. (2009). Urban structures and mobility: a case-study in Copenhagen. Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
[32] Abdulameer, H. N., Al-Jaberi, A. A., Al-Khafaji, A. S., Alrobaee, T. R., & Al-Ansari, H. A. (2024). Evaluating of Urban Space Vitality: The Role of Safety, Security, and Urban Planning in the Religion Center of Kufa City, Iraq. International Journal of Design and Nature and Ecodynamics, 19(1), 155–167. doi:10.18280/ijdne.190118.
[33] Bertaud, A. (2002). Note on Riga Spatial Structure. World Bank Report, World Bank, Washington DC, United States.
[34] Setiowati, R., & Koestoer, R. H. (2024). Valuation of Urban Green Open Spaces Using the Life Satisfaction Approach. Civil Engineering Journal, 10(04), 1159-1181. doi:10.28991/CEJ-2024-010-04-010.
[35] Gu, Y., Shi, R., Zhuang, Y., Li, Q., & Yue, Y. (2024). How to determine city hierarchies and spatial structure of a megaregion? Geo-Spatial Information Science, 27(2), 276–288. doi:10.1080/10095020.2022.2161425.
[36] Kattanh, M. A., Al-Jaberi, A. A., Al-Mosawy, S. K. A., Al-Khafaji, A. S., & Alrobaee, T. R. (2023). Estimating Parking Demand for Commercial Areas in Baghdad- Iraq. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 18(12), 3823–3829. doi:10.18280/ijsdp.181214.
[37] Name, I. A. J., Al-Jameel, H. A., AL-Maliki, L. A., & Al-Mamoori, S. K. (2023). Assessment of Public Transportation Facilities: Al-Kut City as a Case Study. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2806(1). doi:10.1063/5.0162886.
[38] Jasim, I. A., Hasan, H. M., Farhan, S. L., & Bahat, K. H. (2021). Evaluating the urban structure of Al-Kut city according to sustainability. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 779(1), 012021. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/779/1/012021.
[39] Ismael, N. T. (2020). Urban expansion indicators of cities" Case study for Arab cities. Journal of Techniques, 2(1), 1-21. doi:10.51173/jt.v2i1.51.
[40] Ding, C., & Zhao, X. (2014). Land market, land development and urban spatial structure in Beijing. Land Use Policy, 40, 83–90. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.10.019.
[41] Hussein, W. A., & Al-Khafaji, A. S. (2023). Planning and Preservation of Natural Areas in Urban Contexts: Application of Biophilic Approach in Kufa City. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 18(9), 2829–2837. doi:10.18280/ijsdp.180921.
[42] Name, I. A. J., Al-Jameel, H. A., Al-Maliki, L. A., Al-Mamoori, S. K., & Al-Ansari, N. (2023). Spatial analyses model for the public transportation and the urban form relationship. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2651. doi:10.1063/5.0133659.
[43] Ryan, S., & Frank, L. (2009). Pedestrian Environments and Transit Ridership. Journal of Public Transportation, 12(1), 39–57. doi:10.5038/2375-0901.12.1.3.
[44] Alrobaee, T. (2021). Measuring Spatial Justice Indices in the Traditional Islamic Cities by Using GIS, An-Najaf Holy City, Iraq: A Case Study. Journal of Applied Science and Technology Trends, 2(2), 99–105. doi:10.38094/jastt202167.
[45] Jasim, I. A., Al-Jaberi, A. A., Al-Maliki, L. A., Al-Ansari, N., & Al-Mamoori, S. K. (2022). Do the population density and coverage rate of transit affect the public transport contribution? Cogent Engineering, 9(1). doi:10.1080/23311916.2022.2143059.
[46] Abukhanafer, G., Al-Fatlawi, A. H., Joni, H. H., & Salman, H. M. (2021). A Laboratory Investigation to Remove the Responsible for Clogging in Filtration Process. Environmental Technology and Innovation, 21. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2020.101345.
[2] Du, X., Zhou, J., & Xiao, C. (2024). Spatial effects and influencing factors of urban sustainable development: An analysis of urban agglomerations in China. Economic Analysis and Policy, 81, 556–575. doi:10.1016/j.eap.2023.12.022.
[3] Jedi, Z. A. J., & Al-Jawari, S. M. (2023). Analysing formal transformations in sustainable urban structures in Kufa City, Iraq. Environmental & Socio-Economic Studies, 11(2), 52–63. doi:10.2478/environ-2023-0011.
[4] Wang, D., Liang, Y. F., & Dou, W. (2024). How does urban industrial structure upgrading affect green productivity? The moderating role of smart city development. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 72, 133–149. doi:10.1016/j.strueco.2024.09.017.
[5] Al-Abayechi, Y. F., & Al-Khafaji, A. S. (2023). Forecasting the Impact of the Environmental and Energy Factor to Improve Urban Sustainability by Using (SEM). Civil Engineering Journal (Iran), 9(10), 2554–2567. doi:10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-10-013.
[6] Yin, H., Xiao, R., Fei, X., Zhang, Z., Gao, Z., Wan, Y., Tan, W., Jiang, X., Cao, W., & Guo, Y. (2023). Analyzing "economy-society-environment” sustainability from the perspective of urban spatial structure: A case study of the Yangtze River delta urban agglomeration. Sustainable Cities and Society, 96, 104691. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2023.104691.
[7] Zheng, S., Huang, Y., & Fu, Y. (2023). The effect of polycentric urban spatial structure on PM2.5: An empirical study of China. Sustainable Cities and Society, 98, 104806. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2023.104806.
[8] Gallotti, R., Sacco, P., & De Domenico, M. (2021). Complex Urban Systems: Challenges and Integrated Solutions for the Sustainability and Resilience of Cities. Complexity, 1782354. doi:10.1155/2021/1782354.
[9] Liu, K., Xue, Y., Chen, Z., Miao, Y., & Shi, J. (2022). Economic spatial structure of China's urban agglomerations: Regional differences, distribution dynamics, and convergence. Sustainable Cities and Society, 87, 104253. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2022.104253.
[10] Bertaud, A. (2004). The spatial organization of cities: Deliberate outcome or unforeseen consequence?. Working Paper 2004-01, Institute of Urban and Regional Development, University of California, Berkeley, United States.
[11] Bertaud, A. (2006). The spatial structures of Central and Eastern European cities. The Urban Mosaic of Post-Socialist Europe. Contributions to Economics. Physica-Verlag HD, Heidelberg, Germany. doi:10.1007/3-7908-1727-9_5.
[12] Zhou, H., & Gao, H. (2020). The impact of urban morphology on urban transportation mode: A case study of Tokyo. Case Studies on Transport Policy, 8(1), 197–205. doi:10.1016/j.cstp.2018.07.005.
[13] Liu, G. Y., Yang, Z. F., Su, M. R., & Chen, B. (2012). The structure, evolution and sustainability of urban socio-economic system. Ecological Informatics, 10, 2–9. doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2011.10.001.
[14] Borrego, C., Martins, H., Tchepel, O., Salmim, L., Monteiro, A., & Miranda, A. I. (2006). How urban structure can affect city sustainability from an air quality perspective. Environmental Modelling and Software, 21(4), 461–467. doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2004.07.009.
[15] EPA. (2024). Our Built and Natural Environments: A Technical Review of the Interactions Between Land Use, Transportation, and Environmental Quality. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, United States. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/our-built-and-natural-environments (accessed on March 2025).
[16] Padhiary, M., Roy, P., & Roy, D. (2024). The Future of Urban Connectivity. Sustainable Smart Cities and the Future of Urban Development, 33–66, IGI Global, Hershey, United States. doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-6740-7.ch002.
[17] Dadashpoor, H., & Yousefi, Z. (2018). Centralization or decentralization? A review on the effects of information and communication technology on urban spatial structure. Cities, 78, 194–205. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2018.02.013.
[18] Yin, Z., Li, W., Li, C., & Zheng, Y. (2025). The relationship between accessibility and land prices: A focus on accessibility to transit in the 15-min city. Travel Behaviour and Society, 38, 100914. doi:10.1016/j.tbs.2024.100914.
[19] Milakis, D., Barbopoulos, N., & Vlastos, T. (2025). The optimum density for the sustainable city: the case of Athens. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 84. doi:10.2495/SPD050031.
[20] Yu, B. (2021). Urban spatial structure and total-factor energy efficiency in Chinese provinces. Ecological Indicators, 126, 107662. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107662.
[21] Abozeid, A. S. M., & AboElatta, T. A. (2021). Polycentric vs monocentric urban structure contribution to national development. Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 68(1), 11. doi:10.1186/s44147-021-00011-1.
[22] Lemoy, R. (2024). Monocentric or polycentric city? An empirical perspective. arXiv preprint, arXiv:2403.07624. doi:10.48550/arXiv.240307624.
[23] CoreLogic. (2024). Population density: where is it the highest and what does it mean for housing trends. CoreLogic, Irvine, United States. Available online: https://www.corelogic.com.au/news-research/news/2024/population-density-where-is-it-the-highest-and-what-does-it-mean-for-housing-trends (accessed on March 2025).
[24] Victoria Walks. (2023). Walking and transport in Melbourne suburbs. Victoria Walks, Melbourne, Australia. Available online: https://www.victoriawalks.org.au/walking-suburbs/ (accessed on March 2025).
[25] State Government of Victoria. (2025). Property sales statistics. State Government of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia. Available online: https://www.land.vic.gov.au/valuations/resources-and-reports/property-sales-statistics (accessed on March 2025).
[26] State Government of Victoria. (2025). Plan Melbourne 2017–2050. State Government of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia Available online: https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/guides-and-resources/strategies-and-initiatives/plan-melbourne (accessed on March 2025).
[27] Jayasooriya, V. M., & Ng, A. W. M. (2013). Development of a framework for the valuation of EcoSystem Services of Green Infrastructure. Proceedings - 20th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, MODSIM 2013, 3155–3161. doi:10.36334/modsim.2013.l20.jayasooriya.
[28] Oyadeyi, O. A., & Oyadeyi, O. O. (2025). Towards inclusive and sustainable strategies in smart cities: A comparative analysis of Zurich, Oslo, and Copenhagen. Research in Globalization, 10, 100271. doi:10.1016/j.resglo.2025.100271.
[29] Silva, C. A. (2015). Urban sprawl and interstitial spaces: a conceptual definition for undeveloped areas and their morphological implications in planning View project Urban sprawl and interstitial spaces: a conceptual definition for undeveloped areas and their morphological implications in planning. Proceedings of the International Conference on Changing Cities II: Spatial, Design, Landscape & Socio-Economic Dimensions, 22-26 June, 201, Porto Heli, Greece.
[30] Ní¦ss-Schmidt, H. S., & Kilsdal, L. (2019). Housing market analysis of greater Copenhagen: housing shortage, urban development potentials and strategies Copenhagen Economics, Copenhagen, Denmark. Available online: https://copenhageneconomics.com/publication/housing-market-analysis-of-greater-copenhagen-housing-shortage-urban-development-potentials-and-strategies/ (accessed on March 2025). (In Danish).
[31] Reis, J. P. D. F. F. D. (2009). Urban structures and mobility: a case-study in Copenhagen. Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
[32] Abdulameer, H. N., Al-Jaberi, A. A., Al-Khafaji, A. S., Alrobaee, T. R., & Al-Ansari, H. A. (2024). Evaluating of Urban Space Vitality: The Role of Safety, Security, and Urban Planning in the Religion Center of Kufa City, Iraq. International Journal of Design and Nature and Ecodynamics, 19(1), 155–167. doi:10.18280/ijdne.190118.
[33] Bertaud, A. (2002). Note on Riga Spatial Structure. World Bank Report, World Bank, Washington DC, United States.
[34] Setiowati, R., & Koestoer, R. H. (2024). Valuation of Urban Green Open Spaces Using the Life Satisfaction Approach. Civil Engineering Journal, 10(04), 1159-1181. doi:10.28991/CEJ-2024-010-04-010.
[35] Gu, Y., Shi, R., Zhuang, Y., Li, Q., & Yue, Y. (2024). How to determine city hierarchies and spatial structure of a megaregion? Geo-Spatial Information Science, 27(2), 276–288. doi:10.1080/10095020.2022.2161425.
[36] Kattanh, M. A., Al-Jaberi, A. A., Al-Mosawy, S. K. A., Al-Khafaji, A. S., & Alrobaee, T. R. (2023). Estimating Parking Demand for Commercial Areas in Baghdad- Iraq. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 18(12), 3823–3829. doi:10.18280/ijsdp.181214.
[37] Name, I. A. J., Al-Jameel, H. A., AL-Maliki, L. A., & Al-Mamoori, S. K. (2023). Assessment of Public Transportation Facilities: Al-Kut City as a Case Study. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2806(1). doi:10.1063/5.0162886.
[38] Jasim, I. A., Hasan, H. M., Farhan, S. L., & Bahat, K. H. (2021). Evaluating the urban structure of Al-Kut city according to sustainability. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 779(1), 012021. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/779/1/012021.
[39] Ismael, N. T. (2020). Urban expansion indicators of cities" Case study for Arab cities. Journal of Techniques, 2(1), 1-21. doi:10.51173/jt.v2i1.51.
[40] Ding, C., & Zhao, X. (2014). Land market, land development and urban spatial structure in Beijing. Land Use Policy, 40, 83–90. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.10.019.
[41] Hussein, W. A., & Al-Khafaji, A. S. (2023). Planning and Preservation of Natural Areas in Urban Contexts: Application of Biophilic Approach in Kufa City. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 18(9), 2829–2837. doi:10.18280/ijsdp.180921.
[42] Name, I. A. J., Al-Jameel, H. A., Al-Maliki, L. A., Al-Mamoori, S. K., & Al-Ansari, N. (2023). Spatial analyses model for the public transportation and the urban form relationship. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2651. doi:10.1063/5.0133659.
[43] Ryan, S., & Frank, L. (2009). Pedestrian Environments and Transit Ridership. Journal of Public Transportation, 12(1), 39–57. doi:10.5038/2375-0901.12.1.3.
[44] Alrobaee, T. (2021). Measuring Spatial Justice Indices in the Traditional Islamic Cities by Using GIS, An-Najaf Holy City, Iraq: A Case Study. Journal of Applied Science and Technology Trends, 2(2), 99–105. doi:10.38094/jastt202167.
[45] Jasim, I. A., Al-Jaberi, A. A., Al-Maliki, L. A., Al-Ansari, N., & Al-Mamoori, S. K. (2022). Do the population density and coverage rate of transit affect the public transport contribution? Cogent Engineering, 9(1). doi:10.1080/23311916.2022.2143059.
[46] Abukhanafer, G., Al-Fatlawi, A. H., Joni, H. H., & Salman, H. M. (2021). A Laboratory Investigation to Remove the Responsible for Clogging in Filtration Process. Environmental Technology and Innovation, 21. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2020.101345.
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