Comprehensive Characterization of Fly Ash as a Sustainable Supplementary Cementitious Material
Downloads
Sustainable development seeks to meet present needs without harming future generations. Rising energy demand from coal-fired power plants increases CO₂ emissions and produces fly ash (FA). The cement industry, responsible for about 7% of global CO₂ emissions, also consumes large amounts of energy. Incorporating FA as a partial or complete substitute for cement in concrete provided both environmental and performance advantages. Hence, this study focused on exploring the potential of FA from Nagan Raya (FANR) as a cementitious material for cement replacement. FANR was analyzed using XRF, XRD, FTIR, SEM, and EDS. It mainly contained SiO₂ (48.04%), Al₂O₃ (27.62%), and Fe₂O₃ (11.78%), meeting ASTM Class F fly ash standards. XRD analysis confirmed the presence of amorphous phases along with quartz and mullite crystals. FTIR showed silicate hydration products (C–S–H and C–A–H gels) at different water–cement ratios. SEM showed spherical particles with rough surfaces, which enhance reactivity but also increase water absorption and reduce workability. EDS confirmed silicate and aluminosilicate compositions. These results highlight FANR’s potential as a sustainable cement replacement, despite workability issues.
Downloads
[1] United Nations. (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. United Nations, New York, United States
[2] Lorenczik, S., Zavala, P. B., & Hungerford, Z. (2021). Electricity Market Report. International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris, France.
[3] Nayak, D. K., Abhilash, P. P., Singh, R., Kumar, R., & Kumar, V. (2022). Fly ash for sustainable construction: A review of fly ash concrete and its beneficial use case studies. Cleaner Materials, 6, 1. doi:10.1016/j.clema.2022.100143.
[4] Filho, J. H., Medeiros, M. H. F., Pereira, E., Helene, P., & Isaia, G. C. (2013). High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete with and without Hydrated Lime: Chloride Diffusion Coefficient from Accelerated Test. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 25(3), 411–418. doi:10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000596.
[5] Alsharari, F. (2025). Utilization of industrial, agricultural, and construction waste in cementitious composites: A comprehensive review of their impact on concrete properties and sustainable construction practices. Materials Today Sustainability, 29. doi:10.1016/j.mtsust.2025.101080.
[6] Saingam, P., Chatveera, B., Promsawat, P., Hussain, Q., Nawaz, A., Makul, N., & Sua-Iam, G. (2024). Synergizing Portland Cement, high-volume fly ash and calcined calcium carbonate in producing self-compacting concrete: A comprehensive investigation of rheological, mechanical, and microstructural properties. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 21, e03832. doi:10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e03832.
[7] Saidi, T., & Hasan, M. (2022). The effect of partial replacement of cement with diatomaceous earth (DE) on the compressive strength and absorption of mortar. Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences, 34(4), 250–259. doi:10.1016/j.jksues.2020.10.003.
[8] Diaz, E. I., Allouche, E. N., & Eklund, S. (2010). Factors affecting the suitability of fly ash as source material for geopolymers. Fuel, 89(5), 992–996. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2009.09.012.
[9] Panda, L., & Dash, S. (2020). Characterization and utilization of coal fly ash: A review. Emerging Materials Research, 9(3), 921–934. doi:10.1680/jemmr.18.00097.
[10] Alterary, S. S., & Marei, N. H. (2021). Fly ash properties, characterization, and applications: A review. Journal of King Saud University - Science, 33(6). doi:10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101536.
[11] Antoni, A., Hartono, F., Tanuwijaya, S., Wijaya, K., Vianthi, A., & Hardjito, D. (2021). Comprehensive Investigation on the Potential of Fly Ash from New Source as Construction Material. Civil Engineering Dimension, 23(2), 78–90. doi:10.9744/ced.23.2.78-90.
[12] Padhye, R. D., & Deo, N. S. (2016). Cement replacement by fly ash in concrete. International Journal of Engineering Research, 5(1), 60-62.
[13] Rachman, A., Aulia, T. B., Fauzi, A., Syahyadi, R., Amalia, Z., & Rosnita, L. (2021). Feasibility of Nagan Raya Power Plantation Waste as Base Material on Geopolymer System. Key Engineering Materials, 876, 51–56. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.876.51.
[14] Ruhana, Fauzi, A., Syahyadi, R., Fajri, Rachman, A., Fazliah, Sumardi, & Mahyar, H. (2023). The influence of NaOh solution on the efflorescence of geopolymer mortar. The 2nd National Conference on Mathematics Education (NACOME-2021): Mathematical Proof as a Tool for Learning Mathematics, 2811, 070011. doi:10.1063/5.0117442.
[15] McCarthy, M. J., & Dyer, T. D. (2019). Pozzolanas and Pozzolanic Materials. Lea’s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 363–467, Butterworth-Heinemann, Massachusetts, United States. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-100773-0.00009-5.
[16] Saha, A. K. (2018). Effect of class F fly ash on the durability properties of concrete. Sustainable Environment Research, 28(1), 25–31. doi:10.1016/j.serj.2017.09.001.
[17] Rihan, M. A. M., Onchiri, R. O., Gathimba, N., & Sabuni, B. (2024). Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of Geopolymer Concrete Containing Fly Ash and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash. Civil Engineering Journal, 10(4), 1292–1309. doi:10.28991/CEJ-2024-010-04-018.
[18] Liu, Z., Takasu, K., Koyamada, H., & Suyama, H. (2022). A study on engineering properties and environmental impact of sustainable concrete with fly ash or GGBS. Construction and Building Materials, 316, 125776. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125776.
[19] Alaj, A., Krelani, V., & Numao, T. (2023). Effect of Class F Fly Ash on Strength Properties of Concrete. Civil Engineering Journal (Iran), 9(9), 2249–2258. doi:10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-09-011.
[20] Altawil, H., & Olgun, M. (2025). Optimization of mechanical properties of geopolymer mortar based on Class C fly ash and silica fume: A Taguchi method approach. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 22, e04332. doi:10.1016/j.cscm.2025.e04332.
[21] Aydın, A. C., Nasl, V. J., & Kotan, T. (2018). The synergic influence of nano-silica and carbon nano tube on self-compacting concrete. Journal of Building Engineering, 20, 467–475. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2018.08.013.
[22] ASTM C618-15. (2010). tandard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete. ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/C0618-15 .
[23] Wang, Y. (2023). Reactivity and reactivity tests for unconventional fly ashes. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Miami, Coral Gables, United States.
[24] Fauzi, A., Nuruddin, M. F., Malkawi, A. B., & Abdullah, M. M. A. B. (2016). Study of Fly Ash Characterization as a Cementitious Material. Procedia Engineering, 148, 487–493. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.06.535.
[25] Isa, F. N., Johari, M. A. M., Anum, I., Agabus, J. L., Soji, S. M., & Salihu, C. H. (2024). Performance of high strength concrete containing locust bean pod ash as cement replacement. Research on Engineering Structures and Materials, 10(1), 71–89. doi:10.17515/resm2023.837ma0802.
[26] Komljenović, M., Baščarević, Z., & Bradić, V. (2010). Mechanical and microstructural properties of alkali-activated fly ash geopolymers. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 181(1–3), 35–42. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.04.064.
[27] Yaseen, N., Sahar, U., Bahrami, A., Mazhar Saleem, M., Ayyan Iqbal, M., & Saddique, I. (2023). Synergistic impacts of fly ash and sugarcane bagasse ash on performance of polyvinyl alcohol fiber-reinforced engineered cementitious composites. Results in Materials, 20. doi:10.1016/j.rinma.2023.100490.
[28] Jose, A., Nivitha, M. R., Krishnan, J. M., & Robinson, R. G. (2020). Characterization of cement stabilized pond ash using FTIR spectroscopy. Construction and Building Materials, 263. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120136.
[29] Chindaprasirt, P., & Rukzon, S. (2008). Strength, porosity and corrosion resistance of ternary blend Portland cement, Rice husk ash and fly ash mortar. Construction and Building Materials, 22(8), 1601-1606. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.06.010.
[30] van Riessen, A., Jamieson, E., Gildenhuys, H., Skane, R., & Allery, J. (2025). Using XRD to Assess the Strength of Fly-Ash- and Metakaolin-Based Geopolymers. Materials, 18(9), 1. doi:10.3390/ma18092093.
[31] Nurmalita, N., Madjid, S. N., Setiawan, A., Idroes, R., & Jalil, Z. (2023). Characteristics of Silica Powder Extracted from Fly Ash of Coal Fired Power Plant – Effect of Heat Treatment Process. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 24(9), 282–292. doi:10.12911/22998993/169289.
[32] Petrus, H. T. B. M., Olvianas, M., Suprapta, W., Setiawan, F. A., Prasetya, A., Sutijan, & Anggara, F. (2020). Cenospheres characterization from Indonesian coal-fired power plant fly ash and their potential utilization. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 8(5). doi:10.1016/j.jece.2020.104116.
[33] Reig, L., Sanz, M. A., Borrachero, M. V., Monzó, J., Soriano, L., & Payá, J. O. R. D. I. (2017). Compressive strength and microstructure of alkali-activated mortars with high ceramic waste content. Ceramics International, 43(16), 13622-13634. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.07.072.
[34] Aripin, H., Mitsudo, S., Prima, E. S., Sudiana, I. N., Kikuchi, H., Sano, S., & Sabchevski, S. (2015). Crystalline mullite formation from mixtures of alumina and a novel material - Silica xerogel converted from sago waste ash. Ceramics International, 41(5), 6488–6497. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.01.092.
[35] Steiner, S., Lothenbach, B., Proske, T., Borgschulte, A., & Winnefeld, F. (2020). Effect of relative humidity on the carbonation rate of portlandite, calcium silicate hydrates and ettringite. Cement and Concrete Research, 135. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.106116.
[36] Lee, H. J., Lee, J. H., & Kim, D. G. (2012). Study on the change in microstructure of Fly ash concrete depending on ages and degree of hydration using XRD and SEM. Advanced Materials Research, 486, 350–355. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.486.350.
[37] Yaseen, S. A., Yiseen, G. A., Poon, C. S., Leung, C. K., & Li, Z. (2023). The effectuation of seawater on the microstructural features and the compressive strength of fly ash blended cement at early and later ages. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 106(8), 4967–4986. doi:10.1111/jace.19109.
[38] Mohanraj, K., Sivakumar, G., & Barathan, S. (2010). Hydration Process of Fly Ash Blended Cement Composite. International Journal of Chemical Sciences, 8(1), 589-601.
[39] Karamyan, H., Avagyan, M., Shainova, R., Sahakyan, A., Baghdagyulyan, A., Tepanosyan, G., … Badalyan , M. (2025). Combined Effect of Basalt Fibers and Bentonite Clay on Complex Mortar Properties. Civil Engineering Journal, 11(12), 5006–5018. Doi:10.28991/CEJ-2025-011-12-05.
[40] Kutchko, B. G., & Kim, A. G. (2006). Fly ash characterization by SEM-EDS. Fuel, 85(17–18), 2537–2544. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2006.05.016.
[41] Younes, M. M., Abdel-Rahman, H. A., & Khattab, M. M. (2018). Utilization of rice husk ash and waste glass in the production of ternary blended cement mortar composites. Journal of Building Engineering, 20, 42-50. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2018.07.001.
[42] Piispanen, M. H., Arvilommi, S. A., Broeck, B. V. D., Nuutinen, L. H., Tiainen, M. S., Peramaki, P. J., & Laitinen, R. S. (2009). A comparative study of fly ash characterization by LA-ICP-MS and SEM-EDS. Energy & Fuels, 23(7), 3451-3456. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.05.029.
[43] Aulia, T. B., Muttaqin, M., Afifuddin, M., Zaki, M., & Firdaus. (2020). Effect of utilizing geopolymer fly ash on potential and corrosion rate of reinforcement in high-strength concrete. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 933(1), 012047. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/933/1/012047.
[44] Ren, G., Tian, Z., Wu, J., & Gao, X. (2021). Effects of combined accelerating admixtures on mechanical strength and microstructure of cement mortar. Construction and Building Materials, 304, 124642. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124642.
[45] Yurdakul, E., Taylor, P. C., Ceylan, H., & Bektas, F. (2014). Effect of Water-to-Binder Ratio, Air Content, and Type of Cementitious Materials on Fresh and Hardened Properties of Binary and Ternary Blended Concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 26(6), 1. doi:10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000900.
[46] Nath, P., & Sarker, P. (2011). Effect of Fly Ash on the Durability Properties of High Strength Concrete. Procedia Engineering, 14, 1149–1156. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2011.07.144.
[47] Shahsavari, R., & Hwang, S. H. (2018). Morphogenesis of Cement Hydrate: From Natural C-S-H to Synthetic C-S-H. Cement Based Materials. doi:10.5772/intechopen.77723.
[48] Tauqir, A. (2018). Determination of water/cement-ratio of cement. Master Thesis, Aalto University, Helsinki, Finland.
[49] Chintalapudi, K., & Pannem, R. M. R. (2020). The effects of Graphene Oxide addition on hydration process, crystal shapes, and microstructural transformation of Ordinary Portland Cement. Journal of Building Engineering, 32. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101551.
[50] Wang, G., Kong, Y., Sun, T., & Shui, Z. (2013). Effect of water-binder ratio and fly ash on the homogeneity of concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 38, 1129–1134. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.027.
[51] Ji, X., Zhang, C., Yang, Y., Zhang, J., Tang, L., & Ji, D. (2025). A New Classification Method for High-Volume Fly Ash: Performance Based on Coal Source and Particle Size. Materials, 18(17). doi:10.3390/ma18174145.
[52] Jhatial, A. A., Nováková, I., Gjerløw, E., & Engelsen, C. J. (2025). Preliminary characterization and evaluation of local concrete sludges for use as supplementary cementitious materials. In Case Studies in Construction Materials (Vol. 22). doi:10.1016/j.cscm.2025.e04319.
[53] Javed, U., Shaikh, F. U. A., & Sarker, P. K. (2024). Thermal stability and strength degradation of lithium slag geopolymer containing fly ash and silica fume. Construction and Building Materials, 425. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135976.
[54] Yu, Y., Gunasekara, C., Elakneswaran, Y., Robert, D., Law, D. W., & Setunge, S. (2025). Influence of amorphous content in recycled fly ash on binder hydration characteristics. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 27(2), 729–745. doi:10.1007/s10163-024-02147-7.
[55] Jwaida, Z., Jadooe, A., Dulaimi, A., Almuhanna, R. R. A., Hawesah, H. Al, Bernardo, L. F. A., & Andrade, J. M. de A. (2025). Investigating the Properties of Composite Cement-Based Mortar Containing High Volumes of GGBS and CCR. Journal of Composites Science, 9(6). doi:10.3390/jcs9060301.
[56] Chen, X. F., Zhang, X. C., & Peng, Y. (2025). Multi-Scale Investigation of Fly Ash Aggregates (FAAs) in Concrete: From Macroscopic Physical–Mechanical Properties to Microscopic Structure of Hydration Products. Materials, 18(11). doi:10.3390/ma18112651.
[57] Qu, B., Martin, A., Pastor, J. Y., Palomo, A., & Fernández Jiménez, A. (2022). Effects of elevated temperatures on properties of hybrid alkaline-belite cement with high level of fly ash. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 21, 2455–2470. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.10.084.
[58] Dai, F., Zhuang, Q., Huang, G., Deng, H., & Zhang, X. (2023). Infrared Spectrum Characteristics and Quantification of OH Groups in Coal. ACS Omega, 8(19), 17064–17076. doi:10.1021/acsomega.3c01336.
[59] Pasieczna-Patkowska, S., Cichy, M., & Flieger, J. (2025). Application of Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy in Characterization of Green Synthesized Nanoparticles. Molecules, 30(3). doi:10.3390/molecules30030684.
[60] Mehta, P. K. & Monteiro, P. J. M. (2006) Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials (3rd Ed.). McGraw-Hill, Columbus, United States.
[61] Kupwade-Patil, K., Al-Aibani, A. F., Abdulsalam, M. F., Mao, C., Bumajdad, A., Palkovic, S. D., & Büyüköztürk, O. (2016). Microstructure of cement paste with natural pozzolanic volcanic ash and Portland cement at different stages of curing. Construction and Building Materials, 113, 423–441. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.084.
- Authors retain all copyrights. It is noticeable that authors will not be forced to sign any copyright transfer agreements.
- This work (including HTML and PDF Files) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
