Investigation on the Mechanical Behavior of Passively Confined Cementitious Treated Sand
Downloads
This study aims to develop a practical and accessible approach for evaluating the mechanical behavior of Cementitious Treated Sand (CTS) under passive confinement using Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) wraps. A method utilizing three GFRP layer configurations was applied to investigate the confinement effect and assess the role of confining stiffness. Path-dependency was analyzed through derived confining pressure rates, and Mohr-Coulomb failure analysis was used to determine shear-strength parameters. Analysis of plastic volumetric behavior revealed that after an initial elastic state, the material dilates upon yielding—activating the confinement mechanism—before recompacting under sufficient confining pressure due to pore structure collapse. Results indicate that the proposed novel constitutive model successfully predicts both axial and lateral stress-strain responses. It accurately represents the nonlinear stress-strain relationship, the transition in volumetric behavior, and the interaction between axial and lateral strains through the proposed dilation formulation. The model incorporates a plastic dilation rate model to capture the dilation-to-compaction transition and demonstrates excellent agreement with experimental results across all confinement levels. This framework provides a reliable analytical tool for designing soil stabilization schemes using passive confinement, offering engineers a practical alternative to conventional geotechnical analysis while enhancing reproducibility, sustainability, and applicability across diverse construction projects.
Downloads
[1] Abu-Farsakh, M., Dhakal, S., & Chen, Q. (2015). Laboratory characterization of cementitiously treated/stabilized very weak subgrade soil under cyclic loading. Soils and Foundations, 55(3), 504–516. doi:10.1016/j.sandf.2015.04.003.
[2] Ardah, A., Abu-Farsakh, M., & Chen, Q. (2016). Evaluating the Performance of Cementitious Treated/Stabilized Very Weak and Wet Subgrade Soils for Sustainable Pavement. American Society of Civil Engineers: Geo-Chicago 2016, 567–576. doi:10.1061/9780784480137.054.
[3] Antunes, V., Simão, N., & Freire, A. C. (2017). A Soil-Cement Formulation for Road Pavement Base and Sub Base Layers: a Case Study. Transportation Infrastructure Geotechnology, 4(4), 126–141. doi:10.1007/s40515-017-0043-9.
[4] Tan, E. H., & Zahran, E. M. M. (2020). A laboratory investigation of the compaction properties of road sub-base stabilised with cement and latex copolymer. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 943(1), 012015. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/943/1/012015.
[5] Saurav, S., & Sinha, S. (2025). Evaluation of Cementitiously Stabilized Granular Materials for Low Volume Roads in India. International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology, 18(4), 1065–1082. doi:10.1007/s42947-023-00399-4.
[6] Al-Homidy, A. A., Abd El Aal, A. K., Nabawy, B. S., & Radwan, A. E. (2024). Effect of adding cement kiln dust on the effective geotechnical properties of sand dunes in Najran–Sharourah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: a laboratory study. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 26(1), 373–391. doi:10.1007/s10163-023-01831-4.
[7] Ghandehari, M. A., & Seyedi Hosseininia, E. (2025). A Numerical Investigation on the Mechanical Behavior of Cemented Sand with Angular Particles by Using DEM. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 50(3), 1579–1599. doi:10.1007/s13369-024-08995-7.
[8] Alhakim, G., Baalbaki, O., & Jaber, L. (2022). Effects of incorporation of cement and metakaolin on the mechanical properties of poorly graded sand. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 15(24), 1777. doi:10.1007/s12517-022-11080-8.
[9] Salunkhe, A., Sre Adethya, V., Gobinath, R., Hari Prasanth, J., & Karthikeyan, S. (2022). Shear behaviour of cement treated sand. Materials Today: Proceedings, 68, 1266–1272. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2022.06.077.
[10] Boutouba, K., Benessalah, I., Arab, A., & Henni, A. D. (2019). Shear Strength Enhancement of Cemented Reinforced Sand: Role of Cement Content on the Macro-Mechanical Behavior. Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica, 41(4), 200–211. doi:10.2478/sgem-2019-0020.
[11] Wang, Y. H., & Leung, S. C. (2008). A particulate-scale investigation of cemented sand behavior. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 45(1), 29–44. doi:10.1139/T07-070.
[12] Yang, H., Qian, Z., Yue, B., & Xie, Z. (2024). Effects of Cement Dosage, Curing Time, and Water Dosage on the Strength of Cement-Stabilized Aeolian Sand Based on Macroscopic and Microscopic Tests. Materials, 17(16), 3946. doi:10.3390/ma17163946.
[13] Wang, W., Huang, J., Chen, D., Luo, Q., & Yuan, B. (2025). The Effect of Cementation on Microstructural Evolution and Particle Characteristics of Calcareous Sand Under Triaxial Loading. Buildings, 15(12), 1–20. doi:10.3390/buildings15122041.
[14] Ocheme, J. I., Kim, J., & Moon, S. W. (2024). Enhancing geomechanical characteristics of calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement-treated soil under low confining pressures. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 1–19. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-61548-8.
[15] Javed, I., Ekinci, A., & Akintuğ, B. (2025). Utilization of Artificially Cemented Sand for Porous Pavement Applications and Analysis of Runoff Control. Turkish Journal of Civil Engineering, 36(5), 111–148. doi:10.18400/tjce.1603567.
[16] Al-Adhadh, A. R., Nik Daud, N. N., Yusuf, B., & Al-Rkaby, A. H. (2025). Effect of Fines on the Geotechnical Properties of Cenent Treated Sandy Soils. Tikrit Journal of Engineering Sciences, 32(3), 1–14. doi:10.25130/tjes.32.3.11.
[17] Xu, L., Xu, R., Lin, Q., Feng, G., Yuan, C., & Ding, Z. (2025). Micro-Mechanism of Strength for Cement-Treated Soil Based on the SEM Experiment: Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis. Buildings, 15(13), 1–11. doi:10.3390/buildings15132370.
[18] Miturski, M. (2025). Novel Proposal for Strength Prediction of Cement-Stabilized Soils Considering Porosity, Cement Index, and Curing Time. Applied Sciences (Switzerland), 15(21), 11448. doi:10.3390/app152111448.
[19] Ahmeti, H., & Behrami, R. (2025). Research on the failure behavior of cement- and fiber-reinforced sand under triaxial tensile loads. Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica, 47(3), 27–45. doi:10.2478/sgem-2025-0018.
[20] Ocheme, J. I., Olagunju, S. O., Khamitov, R., Satyanaga, A., Kim, J., & Moon, S. W. (2023). Triaxial shear behavior of calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA)-treated sand under high confining pressures. Geomechanics and Engineering, 33(1), 41–51. doi:10.12989/gae.2023.33.1.041.
[21] Abdulla, A. A., & Kiousis, P. D. (1997). Behavior of cemented sands - I. Testing. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 21(8), 533–547. doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-9853(199708)21:8<533::aid-nag889>3.0.co;2-0.
[22] Amini, Y., & Hamidi, A. (2014). Triaxial shear behavior of a cement-treated sand-gravel mixture. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 6(5), 455–465. doi:10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.07.006.
[23] Hou, T. S., & Xu, G. L. (2009). Experiment on triaxial pore water pressure-stress-strain characteristics of foamed particle light weight soil. Zhongguo Gonglu Xuebao/China Journal of Highway and Transport, 22(6), 10–17.
[24] Jiang, J., Xiao, P., & Li, B. (2017). A novel triaxial test system for concrete under passive confinement. Journal of Testing and Evaluation, 46(3), 913–923. doi:10.1520/JTE20160547.
[25] Haimson, B., & Chang, C. (2000). A new true triaxial cell for testing mechanical properties of rock, and its use to determine rock strength and deformability of Westerly granite. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 37(1–2), 285–296. doi:10.1016/s1365-1609(99)00106-9.
[26] Touhari, M., & Mitiche-Kettab, R. (2016). Behaviour of FRP confined concrete cylinders: Experimental investigation and strength model. Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering, 60(4), 647–660. doi:10.3311/PPci.8759.
[27] Khaloo, A., Tabatabaeian, M., & Khaloo, H. (2020). The axial and lateral behavior of low strength concrete confined by GFRP wraps: An experimental investigation. Structures, 27(February), 747–766. doi:10.1016/j.istruc.2020.06.008.
[28] Otoom, O. F., Lokuge, W., Karunasena, W., Manalo, A. C., Ozbakkaloglu, T., & Thambiratnam, D. (2021). Experimental and numerical evaluation of the compression behaviour of GFRP-wrapped infill materials. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 15(August), 654. doi:10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00654.
[29] Piscesa, B., Attard, M. M., Samani, A. K., & Tangaramvong, S. (2017). Plasticity constitutive model for stress-strain relationship of confined concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 114(2), 361–371. doi:10.14359/51689428.
[30] Haeri, S. M., Hosseini, S. M., Toll, D. G., & Yasrebi, S. S. (2005). The behaviour of an artificially cemented sandy gravel. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 23(5), 537–560. doi:10.1007/s10706-004-5110-7.
[31] Teng, J. C., Chen, W. B., Song, D. B., Jin, Y. F., Yin, Z. Y., Dai, J. G., & Chen, X. S. (2025). Behaviour of GFRP-confined sand and cemented sand under four-point flexural tests. Acta Geotechnica, 1-17. doi:10.1007/s11440-025-02835-0.
[32] ACI 230.1R-90. (1990). State-of-the-art report on soil-cement. American Concrete Institute, Michigan, United States. doi:10.14359/2140
[33] ACI 440.2R-17. (2017). Guide for the design and construction of externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening concrete structures. American Concrete Institute, Michigan, United States. doi:10.14359/51700867.
[34] ASTM D3039/D3039M-17. (2017). Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials. ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/D3039_D3039M-17.
[35] Bhat, R., Mohan, N., Sharma, S., Pratap, A., Keni, A. P., & Sodani, D. (2019). Mechanical testing and microstructure characterization of glass fiber reinforced isophthalic polyester composites. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 8(4), 3653–3661. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.003.
[36] Stanciu, M. D., Drăghicescu, H. T., & Roșca, I. C. (2021). Mechanical properties of GFRPs exposed to tensile, compression and tensile—tensile cyclic tests. Polymers, 13(6), 898. doi:10.3390/polym13060898.
[37] Piscesa, B., Attard, M. M., & Samani, A. K. (2016). A lateral strain plasticity model for FRP confined concrete. Composite Structures, 158, 160–174. doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2016.09.028.
[38] Orilogi, E., Berry, S. M., & MacLaughlin, M. M. (2020). Evaluating volumetric strain for identifying the loading stage termination points for the multistage triaxial test: A case study with Utah coal specimens. 54th U.S. Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium. Montana Technological University, Montana, United States.
[39] Lloret-Cabot, M., Wheeler, S. J., & Sánchez, M. (2013). Unification of plastic compression in a coupled mechanical and water retention model for unsaturated soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 51(12), 1488–1493. doi:10.1139/cgj-2013-0360.
[40] Samani, A. K., & Attard, M. M. (2014). Lateral strain model for concrete under compression. ACI Structural Journal, 111(2), 441–451. doi:10.14359/51686532.
[41] Jiang, H. (2015). Failure criteria for cohesive-frictional materials based on Mohr-Coulomb failure function. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 39(13), 1471–1482. doi:10.1002/nag.2366.
[42] Barsanescu, P., Sandovici, A., & Serban, A. (2018). Mohr-Coulomb criterion with circular failure envelope, extended to materials with strength-differential effect. Materials and Design, 148, 49–70. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2018.03.043.
[43] Labuz, J. F., & Zang, A. (2012). Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, 45(6), 975–979. doi:10.1007/s00603-012-0281-7.
[44] Yu, T., Teng, J. G., Wong, Y. L., & Dong, S. L. (2010). Finite element modeling of confined concrete-I: Drucker–Prager type plasticity model. Engineering Structures, 32(3), 665–679. doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2009.11.014.
[45] Papanikolaou, V. K., & Kappos, A. J. (2007). Confinement-sensitive plasticity constitutive model for concrete in triaxial compression. International Journal of Solids and Structures, 44(21), 7021–7048. doi:10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2007.03.022.
[46] Irmawan, M., Piscesa, B., Alrasyid, H., & Suprobo, P. (2022). Numerical Modeling of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Beam with Notched under Three-point Bending Test. Civil Engineering and Architecture, 10(7), 3227–3242. doi:10.13189/cea.2022.100733.
[47] Chen, J., Wang, W., & Chen, L. (2023). A Strain Hardening and Softening Constitutive Model for Hard Brittle Rocks. Applied Sciences (Switzerland), 13(5), 2764. doi:10.3390/app13052764.
- Authors retain all copyrights. It is noticeable that authors will not be forced to sign any copyright transfer agreements.
- This work (including HTML and PDF Files) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
