Eco-Levee Coastal Corridors for Integrating Nature-Based and Hybrid Solutions in Coastal Resilience
Downloads
Coastal settlements in low-lying tropical regions are increasingly threatened by tidal flooding, coastal erosion, and ecosystem degradation driven by climate change and rapid urbanization. Objectives: This study aims to develop and evaluate the Eco-Levee Coastal Corridor (ELCC) as a multifunctional spatial adaptation model that integrates coastal protection, ecological restoration, and social functions. Methods/Analysis: The research employs an integrated spatial analysis combining coastal hazard mapping, morphological assessment, and socio-spatial analysis of settlement patterns, supported by a design-based research approach to formulate the ELCC framework. The analysis focuses on coastal settlements in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, representing both urban and rural contexts with high vulnerability to tidal flooding and abrasion. Findings: The results demonstrate that ELCC enhances coastal resilience by combining hybrid engineering structures with Nature-Based Solutions, including vegetated buffers and edible forest systems, while simultaneously accommodating mobility corridors and community-based activities. This integrated configuration reduces exposure to coastal hazards, improves environmental quality, and supports local livelihoods. Novelty: The novelty of this study lies in reconceptualizing the eco-levee not merely as a defensive infrastructure but as a multifunctional coastal corridor that aligns technical engineering design with socio-spatial dynamics, offering a scalable and adaptive model for sustainable coastal development in vulnerable tropical coastal settlements.
Downloads
[1] Sweet, W. V., Kopp, R. E., Weaver, C. P., Obeysekera, J., Horton, R. M., Thieler, E. R., & Zervas, C. (2017). Global and Regional Sea Level Rise Scenarios for the United States. NOAA Technical Report NOS CO-OPS 083 (Issue September), NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, Mississippi, United States. doi:10.7289/V5J1012Q.
[2] Hinkel, J., Garcin, M., Gussmann, G., Amores, A., Barbier, C., Bisaro, A., Le Cozannet, G., Duvat, V., Imad, M., Khaleel, Z., Marcos, M., Pedreros, R., Shareef, A., & Waheed, A. (2023). Co-creating a coastal climate service to prioritise investments in erosion prevention and sea-level rise adaptation in the Maldives. Climate Services, 31, 100401. doi:10.1016/j.cliser.2023.100401.
[3] The World bank. (2013). Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. The World Bank, Washington, United States.
[4] Narayan, S., Beck, M. W., Wilson, P., Thomas, C. J., Guerrero, A., Shepard, C. C., Reguero, B. G., Franco, G., Ingram, J. C., & Trespalacios, D. (2017). The Value of Coastal Wetlands for Flood Damage Reduction in the Northeastern USA. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 9463. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09269-z.
[5] Vousdoukas, M. I., Ranasinghe, R., Mentaschi, L., Plomaritis, T. A., Athanasiou, P., Luijendijk, A., & Feyen, L. (2020). Sandy coastlines under threat of erosion. Nature Climate Change, 10(3), 260–263. doi:10.1038/s41558-020-0697-0.
[6] Lovelock, C. E., Bennion, V., de Oliveira, M., Hagger, V., Hill, J. W., Kwan, V., ... & Twomey, A. J. (2024). Mangrove ecology guiding the use of mangroves as nature‐based solutions. Journal of Ecology, 112(11), 2510-2521. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.14383.
[7] van der Meulen, F., IJff, S., & van Zetten, R. (2023). Nature-based solutions for coastal adaptation management, concepts and scope, an overview. Nordic Journal of Botany, e03290. doi:10.1111/njb.03290.
[8] Luo, F., He, L., He, Z., Zeng, W., & Wang, Y. (2024). Evaluation of Coastal Ecological Security Barrier Functions Based on Ecosystem Services: A Case Study of Fujian Province, China. Sustainability (Switzerland), 16(16), 6787. doi:10.3390/su16166787.
[9] Masselink, G., & Lazarus, E. D. (2019). Defining coastal resilience. Water (Switzerland), 11(12), 2587. doi:10.3390/w11122587.
[10] Omori, Y., Kuriyama, K., Tsuge, T., Onuma, A., & Shoji, Y. (2024). Coastal infrastructure typology and people’s preference-based grey-green-hybrid infrastructure classifications using a latent class model: A case study of Japan. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 114, 104992. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104992.
[11] Pagano, A., Pluchinotta, I., Giordano, R., & Fratino, U. (2018). Integrating “hard” and “soft” infrastructural resilience assessment for water distribution systems. Complexity, 3074791. doi:10.1155/2018/3074791.
[12] Dushkova, D., & Ivlieva, O. (2024). Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience. Sustainability (Switzerland), 16(19), 8700. doi:10.3390/su16198700.
[13] Mohamed, S. A. (2020). Coastal vulnerability assessment using GIS-Based multicriteria analysis of Alexandria-northwestern Nile Delta, Egypt. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 163, 103751. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2020.103751.
[14] Zheng, Y., Lu, W., Wang, H., Tao, Y., Liu, Z., & Ai, Y. (2026). Embedding ecosystem-based adaptive management in blue carbon markets: a conceptual framework and operational roadmap for China. Frontiers in Marine Science, 12, 1702500. doi:10.3389/fmars.2025.1702500.
[15] Peng, B., & Song, J. (2018). A case study of preliminary cost-benefit analysis of building levees to mitigate the joint effects of sea level rise and storm surge. Water (Switzerland), 10(2), 169. doi:10.3390/w10020169.
[16] Ko, D., & Kang, J. (2020). Biopolymer-reinforced levee for breach development retardation and enhanced erosion control. Water (Switzerland), 12(4), 1070. doi:10.3390/W12041070.
[17] Daro Justine, Y. E., & Seenath, A. (2025). Vegetative nature-based solutions for coastal flood risk management: Benefits, challenges, and uncertainties. Ocean and Coastal Management, 261, 107520. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2024.107520.
[18] BMKG. (2023). Forecast of the 2023/2024 rainy season in Indonesia. Badan Meteorologi, Klimatologi, dan Geofisika, Jakarta, Indonesia. Available online: https://www.bmkg.go.id (accessed on May 2026). (In Indonesian).
[19] Qian, J. H. (2008). Why precipitation is mostly concentrated over islands in the maritime continent. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 65(4), 1428–1441. doi:10.1175/2007JAS2422.1.
[20] Chang, C.-P., Wang, Z., McBride, J., & Liu, C.-H. (2005). Annual Cycle of Southeast Asia—Maritime Continent Rainfall and the Asymmetric Monsoon Transition. Journal of Climate, 18(2), 287–301. doi:10.1175/jcli-3257.1.
[21] Antunes, C., & Lemos, G. (2025). A probabilistic approach to combine sea level rise, tide and storm surge into representative return periods of extreme total water levels: Application to the Portuguese coastal areas. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 313. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2024.109060.
[22] Nicholls, R. J., Lincke, D., Hinkel, J., Brown, S., Vafeidis, A. T., Meyssignac, B., ... & Fang, J. (2021). A global analysis of subsidence, relative sea-level change and coastal flood exposure. Nature Climate Change, 11(4), 338-342. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-00993-z.
[23] NOAA. (2023). Global and regional sea level rise scenarios and their impacts. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Washington, United States. Available online: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/sealevelrise/ (accessed on May 2026).
[24] Schoonees, T., Gijón Mancheño, A., Scheres, B., Bouma, T. J., Silva, R., Schlurmann, T., & Schüttrumpf, H. (2019). Hard structures for coastal protection, towards greener designs. Estuaries and Coasts, 42(7), 1709-1729. doi:10.1007/s12237-019-00551-z.
[25] Reguero, B. G., Beck, M. W., Bresch, D. N., Calil, J., & Meliane, I. (2018). Comparing the cost effectiveness of nature-based and coastal adaptation: A case study from the Gulf Coast of the United States. PLoS ONE, 13(4), 192132. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0192132.
[26] Gössling, S., Balas, M., Mayer, M., & Sun, Y. Y. (2023). A review of tourism and climate change mitigation: The scales, scopes, stakeholders and strategies of carbon management. Tourism Management, 95, 104681. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2022.104681.
[27] Weaver, D. (2006). Sustainable Tourism: Theory and Practice. Butterworth-Heinemann, London, United kingdom.
[28] Day, J. (2012). Challenges of Sustainable Tourism. Journal of Tourism Research & Hospitality, 01(02). doi:10.4172/2324-8807.1000e108.
[29] Baloch, Q. B., Shah, S. N., Iqbal, N., Sheeraz, M., Asadullah, M., Mahar, S., & Khan, A. U. (2023). Impact of tourism development upon environmental sustainability: a suggested framework for sustainable ecotourism. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(3), 5917-5930. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-22496-w.
[30] Lincoln, S., Andrews, B., Birchenough, S. N. R., Chowdhury, P., Engelhard, G. H., Harrod, O., Pinnegar, J. K., & Townhill, B. L. (2022). Marine litter and climate change: Inextricably connected threats to the world’s oceans. Science of the Total Environment, 837, 155709. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155709.
[31] Samancioglu, E., Kumlu, S., & Ozkul, E. (2024). Smart tourism destinations and sustainability: evidence from the tourism industry. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 16(6), 680–693. doi:10.1108/WHATT-07-2024-0167.
[32] Neumann, B., Vafeidis, A. T., Zimmermann, J., & Nicholls, R. J. (2015). Future coastal population growth and exposure to sea-level rise and coastal flooding - A global assessment. PLoS ONE, 10(3), 210–222. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118571.
[33] Asmal, I., Syarif, E., Amin, S., Yahya Siradjuddin, M., Asmal, S., Rivai, F., Latief, R., & Ridwan. (2024). Human external and internal activities in the destruction of the north Galesong coastal area. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 28(1), 30. doi:10.1007/s11852-023-01026-x.
[34] Rattanarat, J., Jaroensutasinee, K., Jaroensutasinee, M., & Sparrow, E. B. (2025). Driving Mangrove Recovery: Community Engagement and Socio-Economic Shifts in Aquaculture Areas. Emerging Science Journal, 9(5), 2439–2453. doi:10.28991/ESJ-2025-09-05-09.
[35] DasGupta, R., & Shaw, R. (2015). An indicator based approach to assess coastal communities’ resilience against climate related disasters in Indian Sundarbans. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 19(1), 85-101. doi:10.1007/s11852-014-0369-1.
[36] Muslim, A. I., Fujimura, M., Kazunari, T., & Salam, M. (2023). Small-Scale Marine Fishers’ Possession of Fishing Vessels and Their Impact on Net Income Levels: A Case Study in Takalar District, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. Fishes, 8(9), 463. doi:10.3390/fishes8090463.
[37] Temmerman, S., Meire, P., Bouma, T. J., Herman, P. M. J., Ysebaert, T., & De Vriend, H. J. (2013). Ecosystem-based coastal defence in the face of global change. Nature, 504(7478), 79–83. doi:10.1038/nature12859.
[38] van Wesenbeeck, B. K. (2016). To plant or not to plant? Stopping malpractices in using mangroves to increase coastal resilience. Wetlands International, Wageningen, Netherlands. Available online: https://www.wetlands.org/blog/to-plant-or-not-to-plant/ (accessed on May 2026).
[39] Borsje, B. W., Kranenburg, W. M., Roos, P. C., Matthieu, J., & Hulscher, S. J. M. H. (2014). The role of suspended load transport in the occurrence of tidal sand waves. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, 119(4), 701–716. doi:10.1002/2013JF002828.
[40] Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of the Republic of Indonesia. (2021). Regulation No. 24/2021 on Marine and Coastal Management. Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of the Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[41] Dong, S., Salauddin, M., Abolfathi, S., & Pearson, J. M. (2024). Improved prediction of wave overtopping rates at vertical seawalls with recurve retrofitting. Ocean Engineering, 302, 117647. doi:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2024.117647.
[42] Safari Ghaleh, R., Aminoroayaie Yamini, O., Mousavi, S. H., & Kavianpour, M. R. (2021). Numerical modeling of failure mechanisms in articulated concrete block mattress as a sustainable coastal protection structure. Sustainability, 13(22), 12794. doi:10.3390/su132212794.
[43] Bilkovic, D. M., Mitchell, M., Mason, P., & Duhring, K. (2016). The Role of Living Shorelines as Estuarine Habitat Conservation Strategies. Coastal Management, 44(3), 161–174. doi:10.1080/08920753.2016.1160201.
[44] SNI 8160:2015. (2015). Guide block specifications for pedestrian pathways. National Standardization Agency of Indonesia (BSN), Jakarta, Indonesia. Available online: https://binamarga.pu.go.id/uploads/files/486/sni-8160-2015-spesifikasi-blok-pemandu-pada-jalur-pejalan-kaki.pdf (accessed on May 2026).
[45] Regulation No. 03/PRT/M/2014. (2014). Infrastructure Development. Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing of the Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[46] AASHTO. (2012). Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Washington, United States.
[47] Regulation No. 14/2021. (2021). Infrastructure Planning and Design. Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing of the Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[48] Van de Walle, A., Kim, M., Alam, M. K., Wang, X., Wu, D., Dash, S. R., Rabaey, K., & Kim, J. (2023). Greywater reuse as a key enabler for improving urban wastewater management. Environmental Science and Ecotechnology, 16, 100277. doi:10.1016/j.ese.2023.100277.
[49] Firth, L. B., Schofield, M., White, F. J., Skov, M. W., & Hawkins, S. J. (2014). Biodiversity in intertidal rock pools: Informing engineering criteria for artificial habitat enhancement in the built environment. Marine Environmental Research, 102, 122–130. doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2014.03.016.
[50] Eiselin, M., Schep, S., Duinmeijer, C., & Van Pul, J. (2022). Financing Nature-Based Solutions for Coastal Protection. IUCN—Netherlands Enterprise Agency: Amsterdam, The Netherlands..
[51] Mazda, Y., Magi, M., Ikeda, Y., Kurokawa, T., & Asano, T. (2006). Wave reduction in a mangrove forest dominated by Sonneratia sp. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 14(4), 365–378. doi:10.1007/s11273-005-5388-0.
[52] Rowland, P. I., de Paula Costa, M. D., Macreadie, P. I., & Wartman, M. (2025). Review of methods for quantifying the benefits of coastal wetlands in absorbing and buffering extreme weather event impacts on coastal infrastructure. Ecosystem Services, 73, 101722. doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2025.101722.
[53] van Wesenbeeck, B. K., van Zelst, V. T. M., Antolinez, J. A. A., & de Boer, W. P. (2025). Quantifying uncertainty in wave attenuation by mangroves to inform coastal green belt policies. Communications Earth and Environment, 6(1), 258. doi:10.1038/s43247-025-02178-4.
[54] Pelckmans, I., Belliard, J. P., Gourgue, O., Dominguez-Granda, L. E., & Temmerman, S. (2025). Mangrove Vegetation Density and Channel Drainage Density Have Trade-Off Effects on Nature-Based Flood Risk Mitigation in Estuaries. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 130(7), e2025JC022398. doi:10.1029/2025JC022398.
[55] Sheng, Y. P., & Zou, R. (2017). Assessing the role of mangrove forest in reducing coastal inundation during major hurricanes. Hydrobiologia, 803(1), 87–103. doi:10.1007/s10750-017-3201-8.
[56] Asmal, I., Syarif, E., Amin, S., & Walenna, M. A. (2022). The Impact of the Environment and People’s Attitudes on Greywater Management in Slum Coastal Settlements. Civil Engineering Journal, 8(12), 2734–2748. doi:10.28991/CEJ-2022-08-12-05.
[57] McLeod, E., Chmura, G. L., Bouillon, S., Salm, R., Björk, M., Duarte, C. M., Lovelock, C. E., Schlesinger, W. H., & Silliman, B. R. (2011). A blueprint for blue carbon: Toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 9(10), 552–560. doi:10.1890/110004.
[58] Asmal, I., Hayati, A., Suryani, S., & Nadjmi, N. (2025). Adaptive Stilt Housing and Socio-Ecological Resilience in Coastal Settlements Under Urbanization Pressure. Civil Engineering Journal, 11(10), 4181–4210. doi:10.28991/CEJ-2025-011-10-011.
[59] Sudomo, A., Leksono, B., Tata, H. L., Rahayu, A. A. D., Umroni, A., Rianawati, H., Asmaliyah, Krisnawati, Setyayudi, A., Utomo, M. M. B., Pieter, L. A. G., Wresta, A., Indrajaya, Y., Rahman, S. A., & Baral, H. (2023). Can Agroforestry Contribute to Food and Livelihood Security for Indonesia’s Smallholders in the Climate Change Era? Agriculture (Switzerland), 13(10), 1896. doi:10.3390/agriculture13101896.
[60] FAO. (2017). The state of food and agriculture 2017: Leveraging food systems for inclusive rural transformation. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. Available online: https://www.fao.org/family-farming/detail/en/c/1043688/ (accessed on May 2026).
[61] Ellison, D., Morris, C. E., Locatelli, B., Sheil, D., Cohen, J., Murdiyarso, D., Gutierrez, V., Noordwijk, M. v., Creed, I. F., Pokorny, J., Gaveau, D., Spracklen, D. V., Tobella, A. B., Ilstedt, U., Teuling, A. J., Gebrehiwot, S. G., Sands, D. C., Muys, B., Verbist, B., et al. (2017). Trees, forests and water: Cool insights for a hot world. Global Environmental Change, 43, 51–61. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.01.002.
[62] Spalding, M. D., Ruffo, S., Lacambra, C., Meliane, I., Hale, L. Z., Shepard, C. C., & Beck, M. W. (2014). The role of ecosystems in coastal protection: Adapting to climate change and coastal hazards. Ocean and Coastal Management, 90, 50–57. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.09.007.
[63] UNWTO. (2021). Tourism and COVID-19: Policy responses and recovery strategies. United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), Madrid, Spain.
[64] Qin, J., Feng, Y., Sheng, Y., Huang, Y., Zhang, F., & Zhang, K. (2025). Evaluation of Pedestrian-Perceived Comfort on Urban Streets Using Multi-Source Data: A Case Study in Nanjing, China. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 14(2), 63. doi:10.3390/ijgi14020063.
[65] W.H.O. (2007). Global age-friendly cities: A guide. World Health Organization (W.H.O.), Geneva, Switzerland.
[66] Gehl, J. (2010). Cities for People. Island Press, Washington, United States.
- Authors retain all copyrights. It is noticeable that authors will not be forced to sign any copyright transfer agreements.
- This work (including HTML and PDF Files) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
