Tensile Testing of Soils: History, Equipment and Methodologies
Vol. 6 No. 3 (2020): March
Review Articles
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Tensile strength of soil is indeed one of the important parameters to many civil engineering applications. It is related to wide range of cracks specially in places such as slops, embankment dams, retaining walls or landfills. Despite of the fact that tensile strength is usually presumed to be zero or negligible, its effect on the erosion and cracks development in soil is significant. Thus, to study the tensile strength and behavior of soil several techniques and devices were introduced. These testing methods are classified into direct and indirect ways depending on the loading conditions. The direct techniques including c-shaped mold and 8-shaped mold are in general complicated tests and require high accuracy as they are based on applying a uniaxial tension load directly to the specimen. On the other hand, the indirect tensile tests such as the Brazilian, flexure beam, double punch and hollow cylinder tests provide easy ways to assess the tensile strength of soil under controlled conditions. Although there are many studies in this topic the current state of the art lack of a detailed article that reviews these methodologies. Therefore, this paper is intended to summarize and compare available tests for investigating the tensile behavior of soils.
Al Houri, A., Habib, A., Elzokra, A., & Habib, M. (2020). Tensile Testing of Soils: History, Equipment and Methodologies. Civil Engineering Journal, 6(3), 591–601. https://doi.org/10.28991/cej-2020-03091494
[1] Li, J., et al. "Effect of discrete fibre reinforcement on soil tensile strength." Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 6.2 (2014): 133-137. doi:10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.01.003.
[2] Morris, P. H., J. Graham and D. J. Williams. "Cracking in drying soils." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 29.2 (1992): 263-277. doi:10.1139/t92-030.
[3] Miller, Carol J., Hong Mi and Nazli Yesiller. "Experimental analysis of desiccation crack propagation in clay liners." Journal of the American Water Resources Association 34.3 (1998): 677-686. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.1998.tb00964.x.
[4] Tej, P. R. and D. N. Singh. "Estimation of tensile strength of soils from penetration resistance." International Journal of Geomechanics 13.5 (2012): 496-501. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000234.
[5] Tang, C. S., Pei, X. J., Wang, D. Y., Shi, B., & Li, J. "Tensile Strength of Compacted Clayey Soil." Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 141.4 (2014). doi:10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001267.
[6] Tang, C. S., Wang, D. Y., Cui, Y. J., Shi, B., & Li, J. "Tensile strength of fiber-reinforced soil." Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 28.7 (2016). doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001546.
[7] Beyranvand, A., S. H. Lajevardi, and M. M. H. Hazaveh. "Experiment of geosynthetic tensile strength in soil-geosynthetic interaction by pull-out test." Ukrainian Journal of Ecology 8, no. 3 (2018): 174-180.
[8] Tran, K. Q., T. Satomi and H. Takahashi. "Tensile behaviors of natural fiber and cement reinforced soil subjected to direct tensile test." Journal of Building Engineering 24 (2019). doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100748.
[9] Kim, T. H., et al. "Factors influencing crack-induced tensile strength of compacted soil." Journal of materials in civil engineering 24.3 (2012): 315-320. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000380.
[10] Fang, H. Y. and W. F. "New method for determination of tensile strength of soils." Highway Research Board, (1971).
[11] Hao-da, L., et al. "Advances in experimental testing methods of soil tensile strength." Rock and Soil Mechanics 37 (2016): 175-186. doi: 10.16285/j.rsm.2016.S2.021.
[12] Stoxreiter, T., P. Gehwolf and R. Galler. "Alternative Approaches for the Determination of Unconfined Rock Deformation and Strength Properties." Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (2019): 1-23. doi:10.1007/s00603-019-01908-3.
[13] Al-Hussaini, M. M. and F. C. Townsend. "Investigation of tensile testing of compacted soils." 1974. doi:10.1016/0148-9062(74)91141-3.
[14] VaníÄek, I. "The importance of tensile strength in geotechnical engineering." Acta Geotechnica Slovenica 10.1 (2013): 5-17.
[15] Tschebatorioff, G. P., E. R. Ward and A. A. DePhillipe. "The tensile strength of disturbed and recompacted soils." Proc. 3rd ICSMFE. 1953.
[16] Hasegawa, H. and M. Ikeuti. "On the tensile strength test of disturbed soils." Rheology and Soil Mechanics/Rhéologie et Mécanique des Sols. Berlin, 1964. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-46047-0_34.
[17] Ajaz, A. and R. H. G. Parry. "Stress–strain behaviour of two compacted clays in tension and compression." Geotechnique 25.3 (1975): 495-512. doi:10.1680/geot.1975.25.3.495.
[18] Leavell, D. A. and J. F. Peters. Uniaxial Tensile Test for Soil. Mississippi : ARMY ENGINEER WATERWAYS EXPERIMENT STATION VICKSBURG MS GEOTECHNICAL LAB, 1987.
[19] Perkins, S. W. Modeling of regolith structure interaction in extraterrestrial constructed facilities. University of Colorado, 1991.
[20] Mikulitsch, W. A., & Gudehus, G. "Uniaxial tension, biaxial loading and wetting tests on loess." In Proceedings Of The First International Conference On Unsaturated Soils/UNSAT'95/Paris/France. 1995.
[21] Ziegler, S., et al. "Effect of short polymeric fibers on crack development in clays." Soils and Foundations 38.1 (1998): 247-253. doi:10.3208/sandf.38.247.
[22] Tang, G. X. and J. Graham. "A method for testing tensile strength in unsaturated soils." Geotechnical Testing Journal 23.3 (2000): 377-382. doi:10.1520/GTJ11059J.
[23] Munkholm, L. J., P. Schjí¸nning and B. D. Kay. "Tensile strength of soil cores in relation to aggregate strength, soil fragmentation and pore characteristics." Soil and tillage research 64.1-2 (2002): 125-135. doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00250-1.
[24] Kim, T. H. and C. Hwang. "Modeling of tensile strength on moist granular earth material at low water content." Engineering Geology 69.3-4 (2003): 233-244. doi:10.1016/S0013-7952(02)00284-3.
[25] Nahlawi, H., S. Chakrabarti and J. Kodikara. "A direct tensile strength testing method for unsaturated geomaterials." Geotechnical Testing Journal 27.4 (2004): 356-361. doi:10.1520/GTJ11767.
[26] Lu, N., B. Wu and C. P Tan. "A tensile strength apparatus for cohesionless soils." Advanced experimental unsaturated soil mechanics. 2005. 105-110.
[27] Tamrakar, S. B., et al. "Development of a new soil tensile strength test apparatus." Site Characterization and Modeling. ASCE, 2005. 1-10. doi:10.1061/40785(164)26.
[28] Rodríguez, R., et al. "Experimental and numerical analysis of desiccation of a mining waste." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 44.6 (2007): 644-658. doi:10.1139/t07-016.
[29] Wang, J. J., et al. "Experimental study on fracture toughness and tensile strength of a clay." Engineering Geology 94.1-2 (2007): 65-75. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.06.005.
[30] Arslan, H., S. Sture and S. Batiste. "Experimental simulation of tensile behavior of lunar soil simulant JSC-1." Materials Science and Engineering: A, 478.1-2 (2008): 201-207. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2007.05.113.
[31] Divya, P. V., B. V. S. Viswanadham and J. P. Gourc. "Evaluation of tensile strength-strain characteristics of fiber-reinforced soil through laboratory tests." Journal of Materials in civil Engineering 26.1 (2013): 14-23. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000772.
[32] Tang, C. S., et al. "Experiment evidence on the temperature dependence of desiccation cracking behavior of clayey soils." Engineering Geology 114.3-4 (2010): 261-266. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.05.003.
[33] Suklje, L. and J. Drnovsek. "Investigation of the tensile deformability of soils using hollow cylinders." In 6th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. 1965. 368-372.
[34] Fang, H. Y. and T. J. Hirst. "A method for determining the strength parameters of soils." Highway Research Record 463.1973 (1973): 45-50.
[35] Gopala Krishnayya, A. V., Z. Eisenstein and N. R. Morgenstern. "Behavior of compacted soil in tension." Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering (1974).
[36] Ramanathan, B. and V. Raman. "Split tensile strength of cohesive soils." Soils and Foundations 14.1 (1974): 71-76. doi: 10.3208/sandf1972.14.71.
[37] Al-Hussaini, Mosaid. "Tensile properties of compacted soils." In Laboratory Shear Strength of Soil. ASTM International. (1981). doi:10.1520/STP28753S.
[38] Fang, H. Y. and J. Fernandez. "Determination of tensile strength of soils by unconfined-penetration test." In Laboratory shear strength of soil. ASTM International. (1981). doi:10.1520/STP28748S.
[39] Maher, M. H. and Y. C. Ho. "Mechanical properties of kaolinite/fiber soil composite." Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 120.8 (1994): 1381-1393. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:8(1381).
[40] Das, B. M., S. C. Yen and R. N. Dass. "Brazilian tensile strength test of lightly cemented sand." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 32.1 (1995): 166-171. doi:10.1139/t95-013.
[41] Thusyanthan, N. I., et al. "Crack initiation in clay observed in beam bending." Geotechnique 57.7 (2007): 581-594. doi:10.1680/geot.2007.57.7.581.
[42] Viswanadham, B. V. S., B. K. Jha and S. N. Pawar. "Experimental Study on Flexural Testing of Compacted Soil Beams." Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 22.5 (2009): 460-468. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000045.
[43] Consoli, N. C., et al. "Voids/cement ratio controlling tensile strength of cement-treated soils." Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering 137.11 (2011): 1126-1131. doi:1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000524.
[44] Olgun, M. "Effects of polypropylene fiber inclusion on the strength and volume change characteristics of cement-fly ash stabilized clay soil." Geosynthetics International 20.4 (2013): 263-275. doi:10.1680/gein.13.00016.
[45] Liang, Q., et al. "Mechanical analysis using the unconfined penetration test on the tensile strength of Q3 loess around Lanzhou City." Engineering geology 183 (2014 ): 324-329. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.10.016.
[46] Taha, M. R., et al. "Compressive and tensile strength enhancement of soft soils using nanocarbons." Geomechanics and Engineering 16.5 (2018): 559-567. doi:10.12989/gae.2018.16.5.559.
[47] Deshpande, S. S. Tensile Strength of Soil. Amravati: Government College Of Engineering, 2016. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1263.9123.
[48] Win, S. S. Tensile Strength Of Compacted Soils Subject To Wetting And Drying. Sydney: The University of New South Wales Sydney, 2006.
[49] Tamrakar, S. B., T. Mitachi and Y. Toyosawa. "Factors affecting tensile strength measurement and modified tensile strength measuring apparatus for soil." In Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics. Berlin: Springer, 2007. 207-218. doi:10.1007/3-540-69873-6_20.
[50] Tamrakar, S. B., Mitachi, T., & Toyosawa, Y.. "Measurement of soil tensile strength and factors affecting its measurements." Soils and Foundations 47.5 (2007): 911-918. doi:10.3208/sandf.47.911.
[51] Goulding, B. Tensile Strength, Shear Strength, and Effective Stress or Unsaturated Sand. Columbia: University of Missouri, 2006. doi:10.32469/10355/4364.
[52] Li, Y., et al. "Tensile strength of fiber reinforced soil under freeze-thaw condition." Cold Regions Science and Technology 146 (2018): 53-59. doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.11.010.
[53] Lakshmikantha, M. Ramasesha. "Experimental and theoretical analysis of cracking in drying soils." (2009).
[54] Stirling, R. A., et al. "Tensile behaviour of unsaturated compacted clay soils”A direct assessment method." Applied clay science 112 (2015): 123-133. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2015.04.011.
[55] Li, D. and L. N. Y. Wong. "The brazilian disc test for rock mechanics applications: Review and new insights." Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering 46.2 (2013): 269-287. doi:10.1007/s00603-012-0257-7.
[56] Leonards, G. A., and Jagdish Narain. "Flexibility of clay and cracking of earth dams." Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division 89, no. 2 (1963): 47-98.
[57] Iravanian, A. and H. Bilsel. "Strength Characterization of Sand-Bentonite Mixtures and the Effect of Cement Additives." Marine Georesources & Geotechnology 34.3 (2016): 210-218. doi:10.1080/1064119X.2014.991463.
[58] Chen, W. F. "Double-Punch Test for Tensile Strength of Concrete, Rock and Soils.” Developments in Geotechnical Engineering (1975): 501–541. doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-41249-2.50017-2.
[59] Chen, W. F. and D. C. Drucker. "Bearing capacity of concrete blocks or rock." Journal of Engineering Mechanics (1969). doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-41249-2.50016-0.
[60] Fang, H. Y. and W. F Chen. "Further study of double-punch test for tensile strength of soils." Proc1 3nd Southeast Asian Conf1 on Soil Engineering (1972): 236-242.
[61] Buttlar, William G., G. G. Al-Khateeb, and D. Bozkurt. "Development of a hollow cylinder tensile tester to obtain mechanical properties of bituminous paving mixtures." Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists 68 (1999): 369-403.
[2] Morris, P. H., J. Graham and D. J. Williams. "Cracking in drying soils." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 29.2 (1992): 263-277. doi:10.1139/t92-030.
[3] Miller, Carol J., Hong Mi and Nazli Yesiller. "Experimental analysis of desiccation crack propagation in clay liners." Journal of the American Water Resources Association 34.3 (1998): 677-686. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.1998.tb00964.x.
[4] Tej, P. R. and D. N. Singh. "Estimation of tensile strength of soils from penetration resistance." International Journal of Geomechanics 13.5 (2012): 496-501. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000234.
[5] Tang, C. S., Pei, X. J., Wang, D. Y., Shi, B., & Li, J. "Tensile Strength of Compacted Clayey Soil." Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 141.4 (2014). doi:10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001267.
[6] Tang, C. S., Wang, D. Y., Cui, Y. J., Shi, B., & Li, J. "Tensile strength of fiber-reinforced soil." Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 28.7 (2016). doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001546.
[7] Beyranvand, A., S. H. Lajevardi, and M. M. H. Hazaveh. "Experiment of geosynthetic tensile strength in soil-geosynthetic interaction by pull-out test." Ukrainian Journal of Ecology 8, no. 3 (2018): 174-180.
[8] Tran, K. Q., T. Satomi and H. Takahashi. "Tensile behaviors of natural fiber and cement reinforced soil subjected to direct tensile test." Journal of Building Engineering 24 (2019). doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100748.
[9] Kim, T. H., et al. "Factors influencing crack-induced tensile strength of compacted soil." Journal of materials in civil engineering 24.3 (2012): 315-320. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000380.
[10] Fang, H. Y. and W. F. "New method for determination of tensile strength of soils." Highway Research Board, (1971).
[11] Hao-da, L., et al. "Advances in experimental testing methods of soil tensile strength." Rock and Soil Mechanics 37 (2016): 175-186. doi: 10.16285/j.rsm.2016.S2.021.
[12] Stoxreiter, T., P. Gehwolf and R. Galler. "Alternative Approaches for the Determination of Unconfined Rock Deformation and Strength Properties." Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (2019): 1-23. doi:10.1007/s00603-019-01908-3.
[13] Al-Hussaini, M. M. and F. C. Townsend. "Investigation of tensile testing of compacted soils." 1974. doi:10.1016/0148-9062(74)91141-3.
[14] VaníÄek, I. "The importance of tensile strength in geotechnical engineering." Acta Geotechnica Slovenica 10.1 (2013): 5-17.
[15] Tschebatorioff, G. P., E. R. Ward and A. A. DePhillipe. "The tensile strength of disturbed and recompacted soils." Proc. 3rd ICSMFE. 1953.
[16] Hasegawa, H. and M. Ikeuti. "On the tensile strength test of disturbed soils." Rheology and Soil Mechanics/Rhéologie et Mécanique des Sols. Berlin, 1964. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-46047-0_34.
[17] Ajaz, A. and R. H. G. Parry. "Stress–strain behaviour of two compacted clays in tension and compression." Geotechnique 25.3 (1975): 495-512. doi:10.1680/geot.1975.25.3.495.
[18] Leavell, D. A. and J. F. Peters. Uniaxial Tensile Test for Soil. Mississippi : ARMY ENGINEER WATERWAYS EXPERIMENT STATION VICKSBURG MS GEOTECHNICAL LAB, 1987.
[19] Perkins, S. W. Modeling of regolith structure interaction in extraterrestrial constructed facilities. University of Colorado, 1991.
[20] Mikulitsch, W. A., & Gudehus, G. "Uniaxial tension, biaxial loading and wetting tests on loess." In Proceedings Of The First International Conference On Unsaturated Soils/UNSAT'95/Paris/France. 1995.
[21] Ziegler, S., et al. "Effect of short polymeric fibers on crack development in clays." Soils and Foundations 38.1 (1998): 247-253. doi:10.3208/sandf.38.247.
[22] Tang, G. X. and J. Graham. "A method for testing tensile strength in unsaturated soils." Geotechnical Testing Journal 23.3 (2000): 377-382. doi:10.1520/GTJ11059J.
[23] Munkholm, L. J., P. Schjí¸nning and B. D. Kay. "Tensile strength of soil cores in relation to aggregate strength, soil fragmentation and pore characteristics." Soil and tillage research 64.1-2 (2002): 125-135. doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00250-1.
[24] Kim, T. H. and C. Hwang. "Modeling of tensile strength on moist granular earth material at low water content." Engineering Geology 69.3-4 (2003): 233-244. doi:10.1016/S0013-7952(02)00284-3.
[25] Nahlawi, H., S. Chakrabarti and J. Kodikara. "A direct tensile strength testing method for unsaturated geomaterials." Geotechnical Testing Journal 27.4 (2004): 356-361. doi:10.1520/GTJ11767.
[26] Lu, N., B. Wu and C. P Tan. "A tensile strength apparatus for cohesionless soils." Advanced experimental unsaturated soil mechanics. 2005. 105-110.
[27] Tamrakar, S. B., et al. "Development of a new soil tensile strength test apparatus." Site Characterization and Modeling. ASCE, 2005. 1-10. doi:10.1061/40785(164)26.
[28] Rodríguez, R., et al. "Experimental and numerical analysis of desiccation of a mining waste." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 44.6 (2007): 644-658. doi:10.1139/t07-016.
[29] Wang, J. J., et al. "Experimental study on fracture toughness and tensile strength of a clay." Engineering Geology 94.1-2 (2007): 65-75. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.06.005.
[30] Arslan, H., S. Sture and S. Batiste. "Experimental simulation of tensile behavior of lunar soil simulant JSC-1." Materials Science and Engineering: A, 478.1-2 (2008): 201-207. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2007.05.113.
[31] Divya, P. V., B. V. S. Viswanadham and J. P. Gourc. "Evaluation of tensile strength-strain characteristics of fiber-reinforced soil through laboratory tests." Journal of Materials in civil Engineering 26.1 (2013): 14-23. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000772.
[32] Tang, C. S., et al. "Experiment evidence on the temperature dependence of desiccation cracking behavior of clayey soils." Engineering Geology 114.3-4 (2010): 261-266. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.05.003.
[33] Suklje, L. and J. Drnovsek. "Investigation of the tensile deformability of soils using hollow cylinders." In 6th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. 1965. 368-372.
[34] Fang, H. Y. and T. J. Hirst. "A method for determining the strength parameters of soils." Highway Research Record 463.1973 (1973): 45-50.
[35] Gopala Krishnayya, A. V., Z. Eisenstein and N. R. Morgenstern. "Behavior of compacted soil in tension." Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering (1974).
[36] Ramanathan, B. and V. Raman. "Split tensile strength of cohesive soils." Soils and Foundations 14.1 (1974): 71-76. doi: 10.3208/sandf1972.14.71.
[37] Al-Hussaini, Mosaid. "Tensile properties of compacted soils." In Laboratory Shear Strength of Soil. ASTM International. (1981). doi:10.1520/STP28753S.
[38] Fang, H. Y. and J. Fernandez. "Determination of tensile strength of soils by unconfined-penetration test." In Laboratory shear strength of soil. ASTM International. (1981). doi:10.1520/STP28748S.
[39] Maher, M. H. and Y. C. Ho. "Mechanical properties of kaolinite/fiber soil composite." Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 120.8 (1994): 1381-1393. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:8(1381).
[40] Das, B. M., S. C. Yen and R. N. Dass. "Brazilian tensile strength test of lightly cemented sand." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 32.1 (1995): 166-171. doi:10.1139/t95-013.
[41] Thusyanthan, N. I., et al. "Crack initiation in clay observed in beam bending." Geotechnique 57.7 (2007): 581-594. doi:10.1680/geot.2007.57.7.581.
[42] Viswanadham, B. V. S., B. K. Jha and S. N. Pawar. "Experimental Study on Flexural Testing of Compacted Soil Beams." Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 22.5 (2009): 460-468. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000045.
[43] Consoli, N. C., et al. "Voids/cement ratio controlling tensile strength of cement-treated soils." Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering 137.11 (2011): 1126-1131. doi:1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000524.
[44] Olgun, M. "Effects of polypropylene fiber inclusion on the strength and volume change characteristics of cement-fly ash stabilized clay soil." Geosynthetics International 20.4 (2013): 263-275. doi:10.1680/gein.13.00016.
[45] Liang, Q., et al. "Mechanical analysis using the unconfined penetration test on the tensile strength of Q3 loess around Lanzhou City." Engineering geology 183 (2014 ): 324-329. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.10.016.
[46] Taha, M. R., et al. "Compressive and tensile strength enhancement of soft soils using nanocarbons." Geomechanics and Engineering 16.5 (2018): 559-567. doi:10.12989/gae.2018.16.5.559.
[47] Deshpande, S. S. Tensile Strength of Soil. Amravati: Government College Of Engineering, 2016. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1263.9123.
[48] Win, S. S. Tensile Strength Of Compacted Soils Subject To Wetting And Drying. Sydney: The University of New South Wales Sydney, 2006.
[49] Tamrakar, S. B., T. Mitachi and Y. Toyosawa. "Factors affecting tensile strength measurement and modified tensile strength measuring apparatus for soil." In Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics. Berlin: Springer, 2007. 207-218. doi:10.1007/3-540-69873-6_20.
[50] Tamrakar, S. B., Mitachi, T., & Toyosawa, Y.. "Measurement of soil tensile strength and factors affecting its measurements." Soils and Foundations 47.5 (2007): 911-918. doi:10.3208/sandf.47.911.
[51] Goulding, B. Tensile Strength, Shear Strength, and Effective Stress or Unsaturated Sand. Columbia: University of Missouri, 2006. doi:10.32469/10355/4364.
[52] Li, Y., et al. "Tensile strength of fiber reinforced soil under freeze-thaw condition." Cold Regions Science and Technology 146 (2018): 53-59. doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.11.010.
[53] Lakshmikantha, M. Ramasesha. "Experimental and theoretical analysis of cracking in drying soils." (2009).
[54] Stirling, R. A., et al. "Tensile behaviour of unsaturated compacted clay soils”A direct assessment method." Applied clay science 112 (2015): 123-133. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2015.04.011.
[55] Li, D. and L. N. Y. Wong. "The brazilian disc test for rock mechanics applications: Review and new insights." Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering 46.2 (2013): 269-287. doi:10.1007/s00603-012-0257-7.
[56] Leonards, G. A., and Jagdish Narain. "Flexibility of clay and cracking of earth dams." Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division 89, no. 2 (1963): 47-98.
[57] Iravanian, A. and H. Bilsel. "Strength Characterization of Sand-Bentonite Mixtures and the Effect of Cement Additives." Marine Georesources & Geotechnology 34.3 (2016): 210-218. doi:10.1080/1064119X.2014.991463.
[58] Chen, W. F. "Double-Punch Test for Tensile Strength of Concrete, Rock and Soils.” Developments in Geotechnical Engineering (1975): 501–541. doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-41249-2.50017-2.
[59] Chen, W. F. and D. C. Drucker. "Bearing capacity of concrete blocks or rock." Journal of Engineering Mechanics (1969). doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-41249-2.50016-0.
[60] Fang, H. Y. and W. F Chen. "Further study of double-punch test for tensile strength of soils." Proc1 3nd Southeast Asian Conf1 on Soil Engineering (1972): 236-242.
[61] Buttlar, William G., G. G. Al-Khateeb, and D. Bozkurt. "Development of a hollow cylinder tensile tester to obtain mechanical properties of bituminous paving mixtures." Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists 68 (1999): 369-403.
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